Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear fuels and nuclear energy

Nuclear fuels
• Nuclear fuel is a material which is utilized inside a nuclear reactor to
produce nuclear energy either by nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear energy comes from splitting atoms in a reactor to heat water into
steam, turn a turbine and generate electricity.

• Nuclear energy is produced by destruction of mass. According to Einstein’s

theory of relativity, E=mc2.

• In nuclear engineering, energy is usually expressed in electron volts( eV).

• In general, 1 fission of U235 causes a release of 200MeV of
energy.
• 200MeV = 200 X 1.6 X 10-13 = 3.2 X 10-11Ws or joules
• Thus 1 watt (1joule/s) requires
• 1/(3.2 X 10-11)= 3.1 X 1010 fissions per second.
• If all the atoms of 1kg of pure U235 (containing 25.64 X 1023
atoms) were fissional, the energy released would be
equivalent to that contained in 3 X 106 kg of coal with a
calorific value of 6000Kcal/Kg.
• Natural uranium contains only 0.7% U235
• If fission efficiency is 50% (only half of the total atoms take
part in fission), fission of 1Kg of natural uranium would give
energy equivalent to
• 3X106X(0.7/100)X(0.5) = 10500 Kg of coal
Radioactivity
• It is the process of disintegration of an unstable nucleus
• Isotopes of Thorium, Radium and Uranium are unstable.
• They disintegrate spontaneously and give off electromagnetic
radiations.
• The unstable nuclei decay through one or more states until finally a
stable nucleus is produced.
• Radioactivity may be occurring naturally or produced artificially
(subjecting nuclei to neutron bombardment).
• Radiations emitted in the process of radioactive decay
are:
• α particles, β particles, γ rays and neutrons
• α particles- 2He4 – travel at 1/10th of speed of light.
• 92U238 2He4 + 90Th234
• 94Pu239 2He + 92Th
4 235

• β particles are electrons – negligible mass and

negative charge – travel at speed of light.
• Results due to disintegration of a neutron into proton
• If emitted nucleus has gained a unit of positive charge
• More penetrating than α particles
• Overexposure to them causes skin burns
• Can be shielded by thin sheet of metal
• When an alpha or beta particle is emitted from
nucleus, the nucleus is in excited state and emits the
excess energy as gamma rays.
• γ rays are similar to X-rays
• Very light
• Highly penetrating
• Short wavelength (10-8 to 10-11cms)
• Exposure can cause blood diseases and undesirable genetic
effects
• Thick lead or concrete is required for shielding
• Fourth type of radioactive emission is Neutron Emission
• If a neutron is emitted, the element remains same but a different isotope
results
Radioactive Decay Rate, Half Life
• Radioactive decay is a random process.
• Decay rate (activity) is directly proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
present at any instant.
• Probability of decay per unit time is constant for any one isotope, λ, known as
decay constant.
• N = number of nuclei present at any time t.
• No = number of nuclei at time t=0.
• Activity = decay rate = -dN/dt = λN.
• Therefore N = No e-λt
• Putting N = No/2 at t=half life.
• Hence, Half life = 0.693/ λ
Units of Radioactivity
• becquerel (bq)
1 bq = 1 disintegration per second
• curie (ci)
1 ci = decay rate of 1 gram of pure radium-226
=3.7x1010 disintegrations per second.
• Rutherford
Equal to 106 bq
Average life or Mean life, Tav
• It is the average life time of an isotope
• Can be found by averaging the time t over the number of nuclei from
N= No to N= 0.

• It is also equal to reciprocal of λ

• 1/ λ = Half life/ 0.693
Mass Defect
• The total mass of a nucleus is always less than the
sum of protons and neutrons.
• This difference is known as mass defect.
• Mass defect = Z.mp + (A-Z).mn – nuclear mass
Where mp = mass of a proton = 1.007825 amu
and mn = mass of a neutron = 1.008665 amu
Binding Energy
• Energy equivalent of mass defect.
• 1 amu of mass defect = 931 MeV of binding energy
• Binding energy or mass deficiency is highest at the centre of the
periodic table.
• Therefore, if lighter elements are fused together or heavier elements
split, release of energy take place.
• Fusion of light elements into heavier elements
• Fission of heavy elements into lighter elements
 The Fission Reaction

The mass of the fission products is less than the

initial nucleus and neutron
Some of the mass has been converted to
kinetic energy of the fission products

Energy released is 200 MeV - about 10 million times the

energy released by chemical combustion of a fuel molecule
How a Nuclear Power Plant Works: Fuel
Uranium-238 atoms are split apart in a process called
nuclear fission.
As more and more atoms split inside the reactor, a large
amount of heat is produced.
 There are three things about this
induced fission process that make it
especially interesting
The process of capturing the neutron and splitting happens very
quickly, on the order of picoseconds (1x10-12 seconds).
The probability of a U-235 atom capturing a neutron as it passes
by is fairly high. In a reactor working properly (known as the
critical state), one neutron ejected from each fission causes
another fission to occur.
An incredible amount of energy is released, in the form of heat
and gamma radiation, when a single atom splits. The two atoms
that result from the fission later release beta radiation and gamma
radiation of their own as well. The energy released by a single
fission comes from the fact that the fission products and the
neutrons, together, weigh less than the original U-235 atom. The
difference in weight is converted directly to energy at a rate
governed by the equation E = mc2
 Nuclear Power Plants

Main components of nuclear power plant

 SITE SELECTION
(Following point keep in mind)
Safety
Availability of cooling water supply
Transmission and load center
Fuel type and Availability
Radioactive waste disposal
Accessibility
Foundation conditions
Why Nuclear Power Production?
• The amount of fuel used is small. No problems of fuel transportation,
storage etc.
• Nuclear plants need lesser area than steam plants.
• A 2000MW nuclear plant needs about 80acres as compared to about
250 acres for a 2000MW coal fired steam plant.
• Greater nuclear power production leads to conservation of coal, oil
etc.,
Major Constraints
• Initial capital cost high.
• Only few countries possess the technology to manufacture nuclear
reactors and nuclear fuel.
Main Parts
• Nuclear Reactor
• For heat generation
• Heat exchanger
• for converting water into steam by using the heat generated in reactor.
• Steam Turbine
• Alternator
• Condenser
 LAYOUT OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Containment
and biological
shield

TURBINE GENERATOR

REACTOR

FEEDPUMP

(SINGLE FLUID SYSEM)

 DUAL FLUID NUCLEAR POWER
PLANT
Primary Fluid or Coolant SECONDARY FLUID

TURBINE GENERATOR
Reactor

FEED PUMP

Circulating pump HEAT EXCHANGER

MAIN PART OF NUCLEAR REACTOR AND
REACTOR CONTROL
HEAT
EXCHANGER
REFLECTOR RADIATION SHIELD OR STEAM
GENERATOR

Control Rods

Coolant OUT
STEAM
CORE

TO
STEAM
Coolant IN TURBINE

MODERATOR FUEL RODS

Nuclear Reactor…
• Conventional thermal power plants all have a fuel source to provide heat.
Examples are gas, coal, or oil.
• For a nuclear power plant, this heat is provided by nuclear fission inside the
nuclear reactor.
• When a relatively large fissile atomic nucleus (usually uranium-235 or plutonium-
239) is struck by a neutron it forms two or more smaller nuclei as fission
products, releasing energy and neutrons in a process called nuclear fission. The
neutrons then trigger further fission. And so on.
• When this nuclear chain reaction is controlled, the energy released can be used
to heat water, produce steam and drive a turbine that generates electricity.
Nuclear Reactor
• A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain
reactions are
• initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as
opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction
occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled causing
an explosion.
• The most significant use of nuclear reactors
• energy source for the generation of electrical power (i.e.
Nuclear power)
• and for the power in some ships (i.e. Nuclear marine
propulsion). This is usually accomplished by methods that
involve using heat from the nuclear reaction to power
steam turbines.
Nuclear Reactor…
• Enriched uranium is uranium in which the percent composition of
uranium-235 has been increased from that of uranium found in
nature. Natural uranium is only 0.72% uranium-235, with the rest
being mostly uranium-238 (99.2745%) and a tiny fraction is uranium-
234 (0.0055%).
Nuclear Reactors Classification
1. Purpose
• Research and development reactors: for testing new rector
designs and research
• Production: for converting fertile into fissile materials
• Power: for electric power generation
2. Type of fission
1. Slow – neutron K.E. less than 0.1eV
2. Intermediate – neutron K.E. between 0.1eV to 0.1MeV
3. Fast – greater than intermediate
3. Fuel used
1. Uranium-Natural and Enriched Uranium
2. Plutonium
4. State of fuel
• Solid
• Liquid
5. Fuel cycle:
•Thermal-designed for heat production only without any
recovery of converted fertile material.
• Converter – converts fertile material into fissile material
different from the one initially fed into the reactor , conversion
ratio r is less than 1.
• Breeder-converts fertile material into fissile material ,which is
same as that initially fed into the reactor , conversion ratio r is
more than 1.
6. Arrangement of fertile and fissile materials:
•One region: fertile and fissile materials mixed
•Two region: fertile and fissile materials separate.
7. Arrangement of fuel and moderator:
•Homogeneous : fuel and moderator mixed
• Heterogeneous: fuel in discrete lumps in moderator
8. Moderator material:
•Heavy water
•Graphite
•Water
•Beryllium, Boron and Lithium
9. Cooling system
•Direct: the liquid fuel circulated from the reactor to heat
exchanger where steam is generated.
•Indirect : coolant passes through the reactor and then through
the heat exchanger for steam production.
10. Coolant used
•Gas
•Ordinary and heavy water
•Liquid metal
A Nuclear Power Plant
Needs
of
Nuclear
Power
Plants
growing energy demands
unpredictable fossil fuel costs and
continued need for clean energy.
Benefits of Nuclear Power
Reduce demand of Coal
Stable fuel cost
Improves the environment
Less space is required
Bigger capacity gives additional
advantage
Economic benefits – jobs & economy
Waste product is controlled, stored,
monitored, protected and regulated
Proven, reliable, low-cost supplier of
electricity
 Environmental Benefits
• Nuclear generators eliminate Greenhouse
gas generation
• Existence of a nuclear plant assists in siting
industrial facilities (environmental cap &
trade)
• Eases burden of siting fossil fueled plants
• Assists in maintaining a balanced &
diversified generating portfolio
 LIMITATION
•Danger of Radioactivity
•Health of Worker
•Disposal of Radio Activity Waste
•High salaries of trained person
•Very High Initial Capital Cost
 Types of Radiation
Alpha Particle - A positive charged particle emitted by certain
radioactive materials. Alpha particles can be stopped by a sheet
of paper.

Alpha Radiation - The least penetration type of radiation: emission

of positive charged particles by certain radioactive materials

Beta particle - A negatively charged particle emitted from an atom

during radioactive decay. A beta particle can be stopped by an inch
of wood or a thin sheet of aluminum.

Beta Radiation - Emitted from the nucleus during fission: emission

of negatively charged particles during radioactive decay.
On The Basis Of Their Applications, Function And
Construction
Research teaching and material testing reactor
Plutonium production reactor which produce fissile
material from fertile material or produce isotopes
Power reactors
• Stationary power plant
• Center station power reactor
• Package reactor for easy mobility, specially for defense
purpose
Mobile reactor , Naval reactor , merchant ship reactor
Space reactor which are used in space craft
Food irradiation reactor
 BASIC REACTOR SYSTEM
Pressurized water reactor
Boiling water reactor
Sodium graphite reactor
Fast breeder reactor
Homogeneous reactor
Organic cooled and moderator reactor
Gas cooled reactor
High temperature gas cooled reactor
Pressurized water reactor
 Pressurized water reactor

1 Reactor vessel 8 Fresh steam 14 Condenser

2 Fuel elements 9 Feedwater 15 Cooling water

3 Control rods 10 High pressure turbine 16 Feedwater pump

4 Control rod drive 11 Low pressure turbine 17 Feedwater pre-heater
5 Pressurizer 12 Generator 18 Concrete shield
6 Steam generator 13 Exciter 19 Cooling water pump
7 Main circulating pump    
Boiling water reactor
Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor
(AGR)
 

Heavy Water Reactor/candu

Radiation Shielding
• Protecting people and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing
radiation is important in case of nuclear power plant.

• In radiation protection, three main parameters are exposure time , distance

from source and shielding.

• The amount of radiation exposure depends upon time limit and and distance
from the source directly.

• In case, if the source is too extensive and by reducing the time limit as well as
increasing distance from the source, are not providing sufficient protection,
then the radiation shielding comes into picture.

• Radiation shielding usually consist of barriers of lead, concrete or many more

materials, depending upon the type of radiation to be shielded , energy
involved etc.
• Radiation shielding simply means having some material able to
absorb the radiations, placed between the source of radiation
and protected device or personnel the radiation.

• In nuclear power plant, the main source of radiation is nuclear

reactor, more precisely nuclear core.

• Shielding used for this purpose is called biological shielding.

• Another type of shield is thermal shield which protects the

reactor vessel and  its internals from the excessive heating
produced due to gamma rays or fast moving neutrons.
Containment Vessel
1.5-inch thick steel

Shield Building Wall

3-foot thick reinforced concrete

Dry Well Wall

5-foot thick reinforced concrete

Bio Shield
4-foot thick leaded concrete with
1.5-inch thick steel lining inside and out

Reactor Vessel
4- to 8-inches thick steel

Reactor Fuel
Weir Wall
1.5-foot thick concrete
Multiple Layers to Safety

45 inch steel-reinforced concrete

1/4 inch steel liner

36 inch concrete shielding

8 inch steel reactor vessel

nuclear fuel assemblies

Radio Active Waste safety Aspect
• Nuclear wastes are the wastes that contain radioactive
material.

• Usually produced as a by product of nuclear power generation

and other applications related to nuclear technology.

• Nuclear wastes are categorized as solid, liquid and gaseous

wastes.
Disposal of Solid Radioactive Waste
• Solid waste consists of scrape materials or discarded objects
contaminated with radioactive matter.

• Solid radioactive waste is further of two types-combustible

and non combustible solid.

• Combustible wastes are brunt and radioactive matter is mixed

with concrete, drummed and buried.

• Non combustible solid wastes are always buried deep in the

ground.
Disposal of Liquid Radioactive Waste
• Liquid radioactive wastes can be disposed off in two ways:
dilution and concentration to small volumes and storage.

• In dilution, liquid wastes are diluted with large quantities of

water and released into ground.

• This method suffers from major drawback that there are

chances of contamination of water if radioactive waste was
not diluted properly.

• When the dilution of radioactive waste is not desirable due to

amount or nature of isotopes, second method is employed.
• In this method, liquid wastes are concentrated to small
volumes and stored in underground tanks.

• The tanks should be of assured long term strength and

leakage free.

• If leakage occurs at any stage, it may lead to underground

water contamination.