Chapter-3

Thermal transport and Calorimetric measurement

Thermal-Conductivity Measurements
Introduction
• Several types of thermal properties are essential for energy-balance calculations in
heat-transfer applications.
• Most thermal-property measurements involve a determination of heat flow and
temperature.
• Heat flow is usually measured by making an energy balance on the device under
consideration
For example, a metal plate might be heated with an electric heater and the plate
immersed in a tank of water during this heating process. The convection heat loss from
the plate
• Thermal conductivity may be classified as a transport property since it is indicative of
the energy transport in a fluid or solid.
• In gases and liquids the transport of energy takes place by molecular motion, while
in solids transport of energy by free electrons and lattice vibration is important.
• Fluid viscosity is also classified as a transport property because it is dependent on
the momentum transport that results from molecular motion in the fluid.
• Mass diffusion is similarly classified as a transport process because it results from
molecular movement.
Thermal-Conductivity Measurements
Thermal conductivity is defined by the Fourier equation
• Experimental determinations of thermal conductivity can be determined as if the heat-transfer
rate through the material, the material thickness, and the difference in temperature are
measured, then the thermal conductivity may be calculated from

(3.1)

• In an experimental setup the heat may be supplied to one side of the slab by an electric heater
and removed from the other side by a cooled plate. The temperatures on each side of the slab
may be measured with thermocouples or thermistors, whichever is more appropriate.
• The main problem of the above method for determining thermal conductivity is that heat may
escape from the edges of the slab, or if the edges are covered with insulation, a two-
dimensional temperature profile may result, which can cause an error in the determination . To
avoid this error we can use another methods
• There are different types of instruments available to measure thermal conductivity
among them:
• guarded hot plate
• laser flash diffusivity (self study)
• They differ in technique, sample size, testing time, capability and methodologies of
measurement.

Guarded hot plate.

• A solid sample of material is placed between two plates.
• One plate is heated and the other is cooled or heated to lesser extent.
• Temperature of the plates is monitored until they are constant.
• The steady state temperatures, the thickness of the sample and the heat input to the hot
plate are used to calculate thermal conductivity.

Figure 4.1: Scheme of guarded hot plate

Fourier law of conduction.

q Q / A
k 
T T
x x
Example: A guarded hot-plate apparatus is used to measure the thermal conductivity of a
metal having k = 50 Btu/h · ft · oF. The thickness of the specimen is 0.125±0.002 in, and the
heat flux may be measured within 1 percent. Calculate the accuracy necessary on the T
measurement in order to ensure an overall uncertainty in the measurement of k of 5
percent. If one of the plate temperatures is nominally 300oF, calculate the nominal value
of the other plate temperature and the tolerable uncertainty in each temperature
measurement, assuming a nominal heat flux of 20,000 Btu/h · ft2.
Solution
We use Eq. (3.1) to estimate the uncertainty in conjunction with Eq. (2.2)
(a)
Equation (2.2) may be written as

(b)
We have
Thermal Conductivity of Liquids
 The diameter of the plates is 5 cm, and the
thickness of the liquid layer is approximately 0.05
cm.
 This layer must be sufficiently thin so that
convection currents are minimized.

Fig. 3.3 Guarded hot-plate apparatus for measurement of

thermal conductivity of liquids,

 An annular arrangement, as shown in below, may also be

used for the determination of liquid thermal
conductivities.
 Again, the thickness of the liquid layer must be thin
enough to minimize thermal-convection currents.

Fig. 3.4 Concentric-cylinder method for measurements of thermal

conductivity of liquids.
Measurement of Viscosity
The defining equation for dynamic or absolute viscosity is

(3.2)
 Fig 3.7 Velocity distribution between large parallel plates.

 Consider the parallel plates as shown in above.

Fig 3.8 Rotating concentric-cylinder apparatus for
 One plate is stationary, and the other moves with constant
measurement of viscosity.
velocity u.
 The velocity profile for the fluid between the two plates is a  The inner cylinder is stationary and attached to an
straight line, and the velocity gradient is appropriate torque-measuring device, while the outer
cylinder is driven at a constant angular velocity ω.
du u  If the annular space b is sufficiently small in comparison
 with the radius of the inner cylinder, then the rotating
dy b cylinder arrangement approximates the parallel-plate
situation, and the velocity profile in the gap space may
 The system could be used to measure the viscosity by be assumed to be linear. Then,
measuring the force required to maintain the moving plate at
the constant velocity u. du r2 w
 (3.3)
dy b
Now, if the torque T is measured, the fluid shear stress is expressed by

(3.4)

where L is the length of the cylinder. The viscosity is determined by combining Eqs. (3.2), (3.3), and (3.4) to
give
(3.5)

Gas Diffusion
 Consider a container of a certain gas (2) as
shown in Fig. At one end of the container another
gas (1) is introduced and allowed to diffuse into
Fig 3.9 Schematic of gas-diffusion process.
gas (2). The diffusion rate of gas (1) at any
instant of time is given by Fick’s law of diffusion
as

(3.5)
It may be noted that Eq. (3.5) is similar to the Fourier law for heat conduction. When a mass balance is
made on an element, the one-dimensional diffusion equation results:

(3.6)

 A solution to this equation may be used as the basis for an

experimental determination of the diffusion coefficient D12.

 Simple experimental setup for the measurement of gas-

diffusion coefficients is shown in Fig.
 Two sections of glass tubing are connected by a flexible
Tygon tubing connection, which may be clamped as shown.
The sections of tubing are charged with the two gases whose
diffusion characteristics are to be investigated.

 After the initial charging process the flexible connection is opened

and the two gases are allowed to diffuse into one another.
 After a period of time the Tygon connection is closed again, the
exact time is recorded, and the two sections are allowed to reach
equilibrium concentrations. These equilibrium concentrations are Fig 3.10 Loschmidt apparatus for measurement of
diffusion coefficients in gases. (a) Apparatus; (b) detail
then measured with appropriate equipment
of flexible connection.
 A solution of Eq. (3.6) gives these concentrations in terms of the diffusion coefficients and dimensions of the tubes.
Assuming that the lower portion is filled with gas (1) and the upper portion with gas (2) initially, the solution is

(3.7)

 where the subscripts A and B refer to the lower and upper sections, respectively, t is the time the two gases are
allowed to diffuse, and L is the length of each tube. N1A and N1B represent the number of moles of component 1 in
the lower and upper parts of the apparatus, respectively, after time t.

 If the second- and higher-order terms are neglected, it is easy to calculate the value of D12 once a determination of
F and t has been made. Neglecting these higher-order terms gives

(3.8)

(3.9)
Convection Heat-Transfer Measurements
 the wall and bulk temperatures are known along the length of the tube, and the heat-
transfer coefficient may be calculated at any axial location from
q = hA(Tw − TB) (3.10)
where A is the total inside-heated surface
area of the tube, Tw and TB are the wall and
bulk temperatures at the perpendicular
location, and q is the total heat-transfer rate,
given by
q = EI (3.11)
E and I are the voltage and current impressed
on the test section. The heated surface area is
A = πdiL (3.12) Fig 3.11 Schematic of apparatus for determination of
forced convection heat-transfer coefficients in smooth
The outside surface of the tube must be tubes.
covered with insulation to ensure that all the
electric heating is dissipated in the water.
 A simple experimental setup for determination of natural-convection
heat-transfer coefficients on a horizontal cylinder is shown in Fig.
3.12.
 The heated horizontal cylinder consists of three sections. The center
section is the test element, while the two end sections are guard
heaters that eliminate end losses from the center section.
 All three sections are electrically heated and instrumented with
thermocouples which measure their respective surface temperatures.
 The electric current to the guard heaters is adjusted so that their
temperature is just equal to the temperature of the center section.
 At this balance condition all the electric heating of the center section
is dissipated to the surrounding air or enclosure.
 The total heat loss from the test element is given by
Fig 3.12 Schematic of heated cylinder
arrangement for determination of
s free-convection heat-transfer coefficients.
(3.12)

where h is the free-convection heat-transfer coefficient, Tw is the test section temperature, 𝛜 is the surface
emissivity, T∞ is the surrounding air temperature, Ts is the temperature of the surrounding room or enclosure, and
A is the surface area, given by
(3.13)
A = πdL
Example: A 30 × 30-cm square metal plate is used for a determination of free convection heat-transfer
coefficients. The plate is placed in a vertical position and exposed to room air at 20 oC. The plate is
electrically heated to a uniform surface temperature of 50 oC, and the heating rate is measured as 15.0
± 0.2 W. The emissivity of the surface is estimated as 0.07 ± 0.02. Determine the nominal value and
uncertainty of the heat-transfer coefficient, assuming that the temperature measurements are exact.
Assume that the effective radiation temperature of the surroundings is 20oC.
Solution

The nominal value of the heat-transfer coefficient is obtained from Eq. (3.12):
The uncertainty may be obtained from this expression using Eq. (2.2).We
have
Humidity Measurements
The specific humidity, or humidity ratio, is the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry
air.
 The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature of the air–water-vapor mixture as measured
by a thermometer exposed to the mixture.
The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature indicated by a thermometer covered with a
wicklike material saturated with liquid after the arrangement has been allowed to reach
 evaporation equilibrium
The dew point with the
of the mixture mixture,
is the as indicated
temperature in Fig.
at which vapor3.13.
starts to condense when the mixture is cooled at constant
pressure.
 The relative humidity φ is defined as the ratio of the actual
mass of vapor to the mass of vapor required to produce a
saturated mixture at the same temperature. If the vapor behaves
like an ideal gas,
Fig 3.13 Measurement of dry- and wet-
bulb temperatures.
 (3.14)

where pv is the actual partial pressure of the vapor and pg is the saturation pressure of the vapor at
the temperature of the mixture. The specific humidity is
(3.15)

(3.16)

where pa is the partial pressure of the air.

(3.17)
 Example: A sling psychrometer is employed to measure humidity in an air space maintained at a
total pressure of 0.9 atm. The device indicates dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of 35 oC and
20oC, respectively. Calculate the dew point and relative humidity.
Solution
The actual vapor pressure for the water in the air may be calculated with Eq. (3.13), with the value of pgw obtained from
Fig. 3.14 as

Inserting the values in Eq. (3.17) gives

This is the saturation pressure corresponding to the dew-point

temperature. Consulting Fig. 3.14 we find

Fig 3.14 Saturation pressure for water vapor.

Calorimetry
 The subject of calorimetry is concerned with a determination of energy quantities
 These quantities may be classified in terms of the thermodynamic properties of a system, such
as enthalpy, internal energy, specific heat, and heating value, or in terms of energy flow that
results from a transport of mass across the boundaries of the thermodynamic system.
• The actual device usually used for the experiment is called
the Junkers calorimeter.
 The gaseous fuel is burned inside the calorimeter, where it gives up heat to the
cooling water.
 The water flow rate is determined by weighing, and the inlet and outlet water
temperatures are measured with precision mercury-in-glass thermometers as
shown.
 The products of combustion are cooled to a sufficiently low temperature so that
water vapor is condensed.
 This condensate is collected in the graduated flask as shown.
 The gas-flow rate is usually measured with a positive-displacement flowmeter.
 We shall discuss the system in a general way and indicate an analysis which may
be performed to determine the heating value of the fuel.

Fig 3.15 Schematic of the Junkers flow calorimeter.

 The fuel and air are burned inside the calorimeter,
and the major portion of the heat of combustion is
removed by the cooling water.
The following experimental measurements are
made:
 the inlet and exit cooling water temperatures Tw1
and Tw2 , the mass flow rate of fuel mf , the mass
flow rate of cooling water mw, the condensate
temperature Tc2 , the entering fuel and air
temperatures Tf1 and Ta1 , and the relative Fig 3.16 Flow schematic for calorimeter of Fig. 3.15
humidity of the inlet air φ1.
 In addition, an analysis of the products of
combustion is made to determine the oxygen,  An analysis of the products gives the values of d, e, and f
carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide content. for 100 mol of dry products. The mass balance then
becomes
 From all these data mass and energy balances
may be made to determine the heating value of Carbone: Hydrogen: Oxygen:
the fuel. a=d+e 4a+2b = 2g 2x+b = 2d+e+2f+g
 Let us consider the simple case of the
(3.7) (3.8) (3.9)
combustion of methane, CH4. We write the
chemical balance equation as
 Equation (3.7) permits an immediate determination of a. The
relative humidity of the incoming air φ1 gives a relationship
for b as
(3.10)
where pg1 is the saturation pressure of water vapor at the inlet air
temperature and P1 is the total pressure of the incoming air-
water-vapor mixture. We thus have three unknowns (b, g, and x)
and three equations [(3.7) to (3.9)] which may be solved for the
unknowns. With the mass balance now complete, an energy
balance may be made to determine the chemical energy of the
incoming fuel. We observe that
The energy balance becomes
where Ef1 is designated as chemical energy of the fuel.
The energy term for the products mphp2 is calculated
from the energies of the individual constituents. Thus,
The mass flow rate of these constituents is determined
from the balance conditions in Eqs. (3.7) to (3.9).
The purpose of the above discussion is to illustrate the
number of experimental measurements that must be
made in even a simple calorimetric determination like
the one shown and the fact that all these measurements
influence the accuracy of the final result.
 The bomb calorimeter is another device frequently
used for heating-value determinations in solid and
liquid fuels.
 In contrast to the flow calorimeter described above,
the measurements are made under constant-
volume, nonflow conditions as shown in Fig. at the
right side
 A measured sample of the fuel is enclosed in a metal
container which is subsequently charged with oxygen
at high pressure.
 The bomb is then placed in a container of water and
the fuel is ignited through external electric
connections.
 The temperature of the water is measured as a
function of time after the ignition process; and from
a knowledge of the mass of water in the system, the
mass and specific heat of the container, and
transient heating and cooling curves the energy
release during combustion may be determined.
 A motor-driven stirrer ensures uniformity in
temperature of the water surrounding the bomb
Fig 4.13 Schematic of the nonflow bomb calorimeter.
 If the bomb is constructed of a Dewar flask enabling the assumption of an adiabatic combustion process, and the work
input of the stirring motor may be neglected, we have

(3.11)

 The mass of water, ignition wire consumed, and fuel sample may be determined by weighing, and the value of ∆T =
Tfinal − Tinitial measured during the combustion process.
 The initial temperature is the steady value measured before ignition and the final temperature is the value when the
temperature-time curve levels out after ignition.
 The value of mbombcv,bomb = Cv,bomb, which is dependent on the specific construction materials for the bomb may be
determined through a calibration process where a substance with known Hfuel is burned and the valued of bomb-
specific heat determined from Eq. (3.11).
Heat flux measurement
 A slug of high thermal conductivity is installed in the wall
as shown with a surrounding layer of insulation. When the
slug is subjected to a heat flux at the surface, its temperature
will rise and give an indication of the magnitude of the heat
flux.

 Assuming that the temperature of the slug remains is not

uniform at any instant of time, the transient-energy balance
becomes
(3.12)
It is clear that a solution of Eq. (3.12) will give the slug temperature as a function of the heat
flux and the properties of the slug. Thus, a measurement of Ts may be taken as an indication
of the heat flux.

There are some draw backs on this type of measurement type.

1. the temperature of the slug may not remain uniform and a more bulky analysis must be
employed to calculate the heat flux from the temperature measurements
2. the presence of the sensor alters the temperature profile in the wall
3. the slug sensor is clearly adapted only to transient measurements.
End of Chapter 3