CHAPTER 4

HEAT TREATMENT (PART 1)

CHAPTER OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:-
a) State the principle for heat treatment.
b) List the factors that affect heat treatment of foods.
c) Name types of heat transfer in a food container
d) Explain cold point location
e) Explain the effects of heat on thermal destruction of
microorganism
f) Relate the heat treatment method used to the pH of food
g) Determine D-value, z-value, F-value
 PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT
• supplying sufficient heat to a food in order to reduce the chance of
survival of any microorganisms or enzymes that is capable of growth
or enzymatic changes in that food to an acceptable low level.
• Main target is to kill Clostridium botulinum:-
a) Gram-positive.
b) Rod shape (variable from 0.5 to 2.5 microns wide and 1.6 to 22
microns long usually motile and forms oval subterminal spores
(heat stable : 100-105⁰C).
c) Spore-forming.
d) Normal aw requirement - survive at aw >0.85.
e) Anaerobic (absence of oxygen).
 PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT
f) Produce neutrotoxin botulinum (can cause a severe flaccid
paralytic disease – lethal dose : 1.3 – 2.1 ng/kg in human).

g) Pathogenic bacteria.

h) C. botulinum is commonly associated with

bulging or swelling can food (swollen cans
indicates spoiled product – can swell due to
an internal increase in pressure caused by
gas produced by the bacteria)

i) The bacteria require specific environmental conditions for growth

and toxin production including:
 absence of oxygen
 low levels of acid (pH >4.8)
 low level of sugar, and salt
 Clostridium botulinum

SEM (Scanning Electron Micrograph)

of Clostridium botulinum
Vehicle raw vegetables, intestinal tract of
animals, soil, non- treated water
sources, and occasionally dust.

E.g home-canned foods

Clostridium botulim can be found in

soil, water, on plants, and in the
intestinal tracts of animals and fish
Electron micrograph of Clostridium
botulinum
HOW PEOPLE INFECTED BY Clostridium botulinum

1) Foodborne botulism is caused by eating contaminated foods in

which C. botulinum has grown and produced botulinum toxin.

2) Wound botulism is caused by the growth of C. botulinum in a

wound.

3) Infant botulism is caused by the growth of C. botulinum or in the

intestinal
tract of infants.

4) Adult colonization is caused by the growth of C. botulinum in the

intestinal tract of adults.
 Clostridium botulinum

Food poisoning botulinum toxins caused by Clostridium occur

when C. botulinum bacteria that have survived in food that was
insufficiently sterilised proliferate under anaerobic conditions in
the can or packet and produce toxin.
Source:
Clostridium botulinum
• Botox is used medically to treat certain
muscular conditions, and cosmetically
to remove wrinkles by temporarily
paralyzing muscles.

• It is made from a neurotoxin called

botulinum toxin that is produced by
the bacterium Clostridium botulinum.
 REASONS OF HEAT TREATMENT

 To eliminate pathogens

 To eliminate or reduce spoilage organisms

 To extend the shelf life of the food

 To improve palatability of the food

 Medium acid food

High acid food<3.7-4.5< Low acid food

ADVANTAGES OF HEAT TREATMENT
 Heat is economical

 Heatis safe and chemical-free foods can

be produced

 The product becomes more tender and pliable with

desired cooked flavour and taste

 The majority of the spoilage microorganism are heat

labile and can be killed

 Thermally processed foods, when packed

in sterile containers, have a very long shelf life.
 DISADVANTAGES OF HEAT TREATMENT

 Overcooking may lead to textural

disintegration and undesired cooked
flavour

 Nutritional deterioration results from high-

temperature processing

Source:
Rahman, M.S., (1999). Handbook of Food Preservation. Marcel Dekker, USA. 16 pp
 FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT TREATMENT
1) Type, population and history of microorganism

a) Different species/strains have different heat

resistance.

b) The higher number of microbes present

require longer heating time and higher temperature.
Therefore, good quality raw materials and hygienic
preprocessing is essential if the commercial sterility of the
processed product is to be assured.

c) Spores are more heat resistance than vegetative cells (spore

generates a cell type that can survive for extended periods
with little or no nutrients, yet is poised to return to life if
nutrients become available).
Spore-forming bacteria
Sources:

• Pagán R., Mañas P., Raso J., Condón S. Bacterial resistance to ultrasonic waves under pressure at non lethal (manosonication), and
lethal (manothermosonication) temperatures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1999;65:297–300.

• Sörqvist S. Heat resistance in liquids of Enteroccus spp., Listeria spp., Escherichia coli, Yersinia enterocolitica, Salmonella spp.

and Campylobacter spp. Acta Vet. Scan. 2003;44:1–9. doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-44-1.

• Sagarzazu N., Cebrián G., Pagán R., Condón S., Mañas P. Resistance of Campylobacter jejuni to heat and to pulsed electric fields. Innov.
Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2010;11:283–289. doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2010.01.004

• Cebrián G., Sagarzazu N., Pagán R., Condón S., Mañas P. Heat and pulsed electric field resistance of pigmented and non-pigmented
enterotoxigenic strains of Staphylococcus aureus in exponential and stationary-phase of growth. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007;118:304–
311. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.051.
 FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT TREATMENT

2) Components of food product

a) Microbes and spores are more heat resistance if they
are
surrounded by:
I. Fat & oils
II. Protein media
III. High Sugar concentration (more than 60 OBrix)

b) Microbes and spores are

less heat resistance if they are
surrounded by:
I. Salt solution (C. botulinum
inhibited at 8% salt)
II. Essential oils
- antimicrobial properties to several important
food-borne pathogen
(Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli,
FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT TREATMENT
3) pH of food product
• Whether food should be processed in retort using pressure
or boiling water to eliminate pathogenic bacteria depend
on the pH or acidity of the product.
• The categories of foods for application of commercial heat
treatment as follows:
a) Low-acid foods (pH > 4.5 and aw > 0.85) - meat,
seafood, poultry, milk and fresh vegetables.
(Sterilisation by retort)
b) Medium acid foods (pH 3.7 to 4.5) - tomatoes,
pears, peaches and oranges
(Heat treatment by boiling water)
c) High acid foods (pH < 3.7) - pickles, pineapple, jelly,
lemon juice and lime juice.
(Heat treatment by boiling water)
 CANNED PRODUCTS

RETORT
PROCESSING
FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT TREATMENT
4) Heating Conditions
• Heat transfer of the food affected by:-
a) Heating medium used such as steam, hot
water or direct flame
b) Equipment used whether it is stationary,
mobile, rotary or agitating
c) Continuous or batch operation will affect the
heat transfer to the food.
FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT TREATMENT
5) Size And types of container

• Containers for heat-preserved food must be hermetically sealed

and airtight to avoid recontamination from environmental
microflora.
• Most of the thermally preserved products are in metal
containers (cans). Others are packed in glass jars or plastic or
aluminium/plastic laminated pouches.
• Amount of temperature and time needed to destroy
bacteria in canned food depending on:

a) Size of the container

b) Consistency of the product
c) Types of packaging such as bottles, metal cans, retort pouch in-
container (aseptic)
Source:
http://safefood360.com/resources/Thermal-Processing-of-Food.pdf
Source:
http://safefood360.com/resources/Thermal-Processing-of-Food.pdf
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A FOOD
CONTAINER cont.
1) Conduction

• Principle: movement of heat by direct transfer of molecular

energy within solid. Adding heat to the molecules increases
their kinetic energy and ability to transfer heat from one
molecule to another by contact to its neighbouring
molecules.
• Example : heat transfer from the outside to the centre of
large piece of meat.
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A FOOD
CONTAINER cont.
2) Convection
• Principle: heated air or liquid expands, becomes less dense
and rises, creating continuous circular thus set up circulation
within the can.

• less time to reach required heating temperature compared to

foods heated by conduction

• the heating rate depends on the viscosity of the food.

• Examples of convection heating

usage are in fruit and vegetable juices,
small pieces of fruit, vegetable,
meat or fish packed in brine
or sugar solution.
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A FOOD
CONTAINER cont.
3) Convection-Conduction
• Principle: heating first started by convection and
a change in the texture of food occurs that my
cause further heating by conduction.
• Conduction heating is due to collisions of hot
food particles with cooler ones, while
convection heating is due to circulation of
warmth molecules.

4) Conduction-Convection
• Principle: heating starts as conduction
change in food makes the heating convection.
then
• Example: heating large pieces of meat occurs as
conduction until the juices are released and the
heating switches to convection.
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A FOOD
CONTAINER cont.
5) Radiation
• Principle: transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves
• the fastest and it transfer between two
method by radiationheat
surfaces depending on the emission and
absorption between one surfaces to the other.
• Heat is transferred directly from a radiant (red-hot)
heat source (broiler etc.) to the food to be heated.

GRILL BROIL
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A FOOD
CONTAINER
 COLD POINT LOCATION
• Definition: the zone of slowest heating location of a container
where the product temperature at that location increases
more slowly than the heating medium temperature.
• Measured by placing a thermocouple at the cold point location
to record temperatures in food during processing.
• In cylindrical containers the cold point location is at the
geometric centre for conductive heating and approximately one
third up from the base of the container for convection heating.
THERMOCOUPLE
 IMPORTANCE OF COLD POINT
• Thermal resistant pathogens or microorganisms responsible for
product spoilage may be located at the slowest heating location in
container

• This location must receive a thermal processed equivalent to the

established time/temperature relationship for eliminating the
microorganisms.

• It is important for a heat processing to cause enzyme and microbial

destruction but at the same time retains the nutrient and sensory
qualities of the product.

• Higher temperature and shorter processing time can better

retains
product nutritional and sensory properties.
• The time requires to heat the coldest portion of the container of
food up to the sterilizing temperature depends on:

a) Container size – the larger can requires longer time to reach a given
temperature due to distance to the center can is greater.
b) Container shape – a long slim cylindrical can will
conduct heat
faster than compact cylindrical form.
c) Type of product – rate of heat penetration increases
in low viscosity product compared to high viscosity
product.
d) Particle size – small pieces particles conduct heat faster than larger
particle.
e) Type of container – heat penetration is faster through metal than
through glass or plastic due to their thermal conductivity.
 THERMAL DESTRUCTION OF
MICROORGANISM
• The heat resistance of microorganisms usually expressed in terms
of
thermal death time (TDT).

• It can be defined as:

a) Time required at a specific temperature for ‘complete’ destruction of
the organisms or spores
b) Time required to achieve a specified reduction in microbial numbers
at a given temperature
 D-
• Definition: VALUE
“decimal reduction time needed to kill
specific microbe at a specified temperature”

• The time needed to destroy 90% of the microorganisms or to

reduce the number of microorganisms by one log cycle.

• D-value is used to:

a) Determine the heat resistance or heat
sensitivity of microbes
b) Predict number of microbes surviving for different lengths
of thermal processing at one temperature.

• Larger the D-value at a given temperature = higher

the thermal resistance of that microbial population.
Example:
D121 = 10 min
Meaning that:
a) Heat
treatmen
t was
conducte
d at
temperat
ure of
121oC
b) 10
minutes
required
to reduce
90% of
the
microorg
anisms.
 12-D Concept
• In modern food production, canned foods are subjected to
heating process that will reduce the probability of the survival
by C. botulinum spores by 12 log cycles.

• In other word, the probability is that one out 1012 cans would
have one spore of C. botulinum surviving.

• Example:
To kill C. Botulinum for 12-D

D121 value = 0.2 min  1D

12 D = 12 x 0.2 min = 2.4min

So to achieve 12 D, a can need to be heated

 Comparison of D-value for microbial population at different pH

Bacterial Groups Heat Resistance

(minute)
Low-acid and semi-acid foods (pH >4.5) D121
Thermophiles 4.0 – 5.0
Flat-sour group (B. stearothermophilus) 3.0 –
Gaseous-spoilage group (C. thermosaccharolyticum) 4.0
Sulfide stinkers (C. nigrificans) 2.0 –
Mesophiles 3.0
Putrefactive anaerobes 0.10 – 0.20
C. botulinum (types A and B) 0.10 – 1.50
C. sporogenes group
Acid Foods (pH 4.0 – 4.5)
Thermophiles 0.01 – 0.07
B. coagulans (facultative mesophilic) D100
Mesophiles 0.10 – 0.50
B. polymyxa and B. macerans 0.10 – 0.50
Butyric anaerobes (C. pasteurianum)
High-acid Foods (pH < 4.0) D65
Mesophilic non-sporing bacteria 0.50 – 1.00
Lactobacilli spp., Leuconostoc spp., yeasts and moulds
 Z-
•
VALUE
Definition: the temperature that is required for the
thermal destruction curve (to bring about 10-fold
change of the D-values) or to move one log cycle.

• The Z-value is based on the destruction of

microorganisms that is dependant on temperature.

• The higher the temperature, the more rapidly

microorganisms are killed.

• Heat treatments with small Z-values are highly

temperature dependent, whereas those with large Z-
values require larger changes in temperature to
reduce the time.
Thermal death time curve showing Z-value
 F-
• Definition: VALUE
time required to destroy a given percentage
microorganisms at a specified reference temperature and z-value.
of
the

• The value commonly used in the canning industry is the F value which is
based on 12D (decimal reductions) for Clostridium botulinum.

• The reference temperature is 121.1oC.

• Example:
To kill C. Botulinum for 12-D

D121 value = 0.2 min  1D

12 D = 12 x 0.2 min = 2.4min

So to achieve 12 D, a can need to be heated at 121⁰C for 2.4 min

So F value is 2.4 min – any sterilization below 2.4 min is considered as

insufficient
Scott Smith, J. & Hui, Y.H. (2004). Food Processing Principles and Applications. USA : Blackwell Publishing
Scott Smith, J. & Hui, Y.H. (2004). Food Processing Principles and Applications. USA : Blackwell Publishing
CHAPTER 4 HEAT TREATMENTS
TO BE CONTINUED….