Leadership Behavior and Styles

• Behavior is based on traits and skills

• Relationships between leaders and followers are
based on the leaders’ traits and attitudes
• Relationships are good predictors of employee
behavior and performance
• Leadership style is the combination of traits,
skills, and behaviors leaders use as they interact
with followers

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 University of Iowa Leadership Styles

• Autocratic Leader
 Makes decisions, tells employees what to do, and
closely supervises them
• Democratic Leader
 Encourages participation in decisions, works with
employees to determine what to do, and does not
closely supervise them

Autocratic
Autocratic Democratic
Democratic

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 University of Michigan Leadership Model:
Two Leadership Styles, One Dimension

• Job-centered (production oriented) Leadership

Style:
 Leader focuses on getting the job done by defining
clear roles and goals for subordinates and closely
directing them in their work.
• Employee-centered Leadership Style:
 Leader provides support and interaction facilitation by
developing relationships based on mutual trust,
support, and respect to meeting employees’ needs.

Job-Centered
Job-Centered Employee-Centered
Employee-Centered
Leadership
Leadership Style
Style Leadership
Leadership Style
Style 3–3
 Ohio State University Leadership Model

• Leader Behaviors Identified Using the Leader

Behavior Questionnaire (LBDQ):
 Initiating structure behavior
 Focuses on getting the task done
 Is essentially the same as the job-centered leadership style
 Consideration behavior
 Focuses on meeting people’s needs and developing
relationships
 Is essentially the same as the employee-centered leadership
style

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 The Ohio State University Leadership Model:
Four Leadership Styles, Two Dimensions

High

Low
Low Structure
Structure and
and High
High Structure
Structure and
and
Consideration

High
High Consideration
Consideration High
High Consideration
Consideration

Low
Low Structure
Structure and
and High
High Structure
Structure and
and
Low
Low Consideration
Consideration Low
Low Consideration
Consideration

Low High
Initiating Structure

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted
in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 3–5
Differences, Contributions, and Applications
of Leadership Models

• Contributions and Applications of the Models

 There is no one best leadership style in all situations.
 There has been a consistent finding that employees
are more satisfied with a high consideration leader.
 The models do not prescribe leader behavior, but
their classification systems point out that leader
behavior affects both “tasks” and “relationships”.

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Leadership Grid/ Management Grid
The Leadership Grid
Managerial Grid

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 The Leadership Grid

• Impoverished (1,1)
 Low concern for production
 Low concern for people
 The leader does the minimum required
to remain employed
• Authority-Compliance (9,1)
 High concern for production
 Low concern for people
 The leader focuses on getting the job done while
people are treated like machines

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 The Leadership Grid (cont’d)

• Country Club (1,9)

 High concern for people
 Low concern for production
 The leader strives for a friendly atmosphere
• Middle of the Road (5,5)
 Medium concern for production
 Medium concern for people
 The leader strives for satisfactory performance and
morale

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 The Leadership Grid (cont’d)

• Team (9,9)
 High concern for people
 High concern for production
 The leader strives for maximum performance and
employee satisfaction

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 Behavioral Theory Contributions
and Applications

• Led to a shift in the leadership paradigm to

contingency leadership theory
• Recognized that organizations need both
production and people leadership
• Supported that most leadership functions can be
carried out by someone besides the designated
leader of a group (i.e., idea of coleadership with
leaders having strengths that complement each
other)

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 Motivation

• Is anything that affects behavior in pursuing a

certain outcome
• The pursuit of self-interest (e.g., happiness and
satisfaction) is fundamental to motivation
• Making employees happier and healthier
increases their effort, contributions, and
productivity

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 The Motivation Process

• People go from need to motive to behavior to

consequence to satisfaction or dissatisfaction
 The needs or wants of individuals that motivate their
all behavior are complex
 Understanding needs helps the leader to better
understand motivation and behavior
 Only behaviors, not motives, can be observed

Satisfaction
Satisfaction or
or
Need
Need Motive
Motive Behavior
Behavior Consequence
Consequence Dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction

Feedback
Feedback

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 An Overview of Three Major Classifications
of Motivation Theories

Classification of Motivation Theories Specific Motivation Theories

Content motivation: • Hierarchy of needs theory

Focus on explaining and predicting behavior • Two-factor theory
based on employee need motivation • Acquired needs theory

Process motivation: • Equity theory

Focus on understanding how employees • Expectancy theory
choose behaviors to fulfill their needs • Goal-setting theory

Reinforcement theory: Types of Reinforcement

Proposes that behavior can be explained, • Positive
predicted, and controlled through the • Avoidance
consequences for behavior • Punishment

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 Major Motivation Theories
Classification of
Motivation Theories
1. Content motivation:
Focus on explaining and
predicting behavior based on
employee need motivation
2. Process motivation:
Focus on understanding how
employees choose behaviors
to fulfill their needs
3. Reinforcement theory:
Proposes that behavior can
be explained, predicted, and
controlled through the
consequences for behavior
Specific Motivation Theory
A. Hierarchy of needs theory proposes that employees are motivated
through five levels of need—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and
self-actualization.
B. Two-factor theory proposes that employees are motivated by motivators
(higher-level needs) rather than maintenance (lower-level needs) factors.
C. Acquired needs theory proposes that employees are motivated by their
need for achievement, power, and affiliation
A. Equity theory proposes that employees will be motivated when their
perceived inputs equal outputs.
B. Expectancy theory proposes that employees are motivated when they
believe they can accomplish the task, they will be rewarded, and the
rewards for doing so are worth the effort.
C. Goal-setting theory proposes that achievable but difficult goals motivate
employees.
Types of Reinforcement
• Positive
• Avoidance
• Punishment
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 Content Motivation Theories

• Focus on explaining and predicting behavior

based on people’s needs
• The primary reason people do what they do is to
meet their needs or to satisfy their wants

3–17
Content Motivation Theories (cont’d)

Content
Content Motivation
Motivation
Theories
Theories

Hierarchy
Hierarchy Acquired
Acquired
Two-Factor
Two-Factor
of
of Needs
Needs Needs
Needs

3–18
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-
Actualization
Needs

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

3–19
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (cont’d)

Classification of Needs

Physiological: Safety: Belongingness (Social):

• Air • Safety • Love
• Food • Security • Friendship
• Shelter • Acceptance
• Relief from or avoidance • Affection
of pain

Esteem needs: Self-Actualization:

• Ego • Develop to one’s full potential
• Status • Growth
• Self-respect • Achievement
• Recognition • Advancement
• Self-confidence
• Prestige

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 How Organizations Motivate With Hierarchy of Needs Theory
.

3–21
 Motivating Employees with
the Hierarchy of Needs Theory

• Meet employees’ lower-level needs so they do

not dominate the employees’ motivational
process
• Get to know and understand people’s needs
• Meet employees’ needs to increase performance

3–22
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Motivation Theory
• Based on two continuums:
 The work environment (maintenance factors)
 Extrinsic motivators that include pay, job security, title,
working conditions, benefits, and relationships
 The job itself (motivator factors)
 Intrinsic motivators that include achievement, recognition,
challenge, and advancement

Not
Not Dissatisfied
Dissatisfied Maintenance
Maintenance Factors
Factors Dissatisfied
Dissatisfied

Satisfied
Satisfied Motivator
Motivator Factors
Factors Not
Not Satisfied
Satisfied

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 Money as a Motivator

• Has limited value as a motivator

• Matters more to some people than others
• May motivate to a comfortable income level,
then cease to be effective

3–24
 Motivating Employees with
the Two-Factor Theory

• Managers must first ensure that the employees’

level of pay and other maintenance (hygiene)
factors are adequate
 Once employees are not dissatisfied with their pay
(and other maintenance factors), they can be
motivated through their jobs (intrinsic motivators)
• Job enrichment
 Building motivators into the job itself by making it
more interesting and challenging

3–25
Acquired Needs Theory/ MC Cleland Theory
of Need
• Proposes that people are motivated by their
need for:
 Need of Achievement
 Need of Power
 Need of Affiliation

3–26
 Motivating Employees with
Acquired Needs Theory

• Employees with a high need for achievement

(n Ach):
 Give them nonroutine work
 Provide challenging tasks with clear, attainable
objectives
 Give them fast and frequent performance feedback
 Give them increased responsibility for doing new
things
 Keep out of their way

3–27
 Motivating Employees with
Acquired Needs Theory (cont’d)

• Employees with a high need for power (n Pow):

 Let them plan and control own jobs
 Include them in decision making
 Let them work alone rather than on teams
 Assign them to a whole task rather than part of a task

3–28
 Motivating Employees with
Acquired Needs Theory (cont’d)

• Employees with a high need for affiliation (n Aff):

 Have them work on teams
 Give lots of praise and recognition
 Have them train and orient new employees
 Let them serve as mentors

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Exhibit A Comparison of Content Motivation Theories
3.9

3–30
 Process Motivation Theories

• Focus on understanding how people choose

behavior to fulfill their needs
• Are more complex then content motivation
theories
• Attempt to understand:
 Why people have different needs
 Why their needs change
 Why and how people choose to try satisfy their needs
 The mental process involved
 How they evaluate their need satisfaction

3–31
 Equity Theory

• Based on perceptions of fair management:

 If management actions are perceived as unfair,
employees will feel angry, outraged, resentful.
 People are motivated when their perceived inputs
equal outputs.

Our
Our Inputs
Inputs Others’
Others’Inputs
Inputs
==
(contributions)
(contributions) (contributions)
(contributions)

Our
Our Outputs
Outputs Others’
Others’Outputs
Outputs
==
(rewards)
(rewards) (rewards)
(rewards)

3–32
 Rewarding People Equitably

• People will compare their own perceived inputs

and outputs to those they perceive that others
receive
• When inequity is perceived, employees will
attempt to reduce it by reducing inputs or
increasing output

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 Motivating with Equity Theory

• Understand that equity is based on perception,

which may not be correct
 Reward equitably based on production
 Ensure that employees understand the inputs that are
required to achieve certain outputs
 When incentive pay is used, ensure that clear
standards exist

3–34
 Expectancy Theory

• Proposes that employees are motivated when:

 They believe they can accomplish the task
 They will get the reward
 The rewards for doing so are worth the effort

3–35
 Expectancy Theory Variables

• Expectancy
 Is a person’s perception of his or her ability
to accomplish an objective
• Instrumentality
 Is the belief that successful performance
will result in receiving the reward
• Valence
 Is the value a person places on the outcome/reward
 Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence
 Motivating with Expectancy Theory

• Clearly define objectives and the required

performance to achieve them
• Tie performance to rewards
• Be sure rewards are of value to the employee
• Make sure employees believe you will do what
you say you will do
• Use the Pygmalion effect to increase
expectations
 Goal-Setting Theory

• Proposes that specific, difficult goals motivate

people:
 Goals give people a sense of purpose as to why they
are working to accomplish a given task.
 Goal setting may be the most effective management
tool for leaders to use to motivate followers.
• “SMART” Goals
 Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Results-based,
and Time-specific goals

3–39
 Reinforcement Theory

• Proposes that through the consequences for

behavior, people will be motivated to behave in
predetermined ways
• Based on studies of B. F. Skinner

Responding
Responding Consequences
Consequences
Stimulus
Stimulus Behavior
Behavior of
ofBehavior
Behavior
(legal
(legalspeed
speedlimit)
limit) (speeding)
(speeding) (traffic
(trafficticket)
ticket)

3–40
 Types of Reinforcement

• Positive reinforcement
 Encourages continued behavior via attractive
consequences (rewards)
 May be praise or a bonus, etc.
• Avoidance (negative) reinforcement
 Encourages desired behavior with negative
consequences for undesired behavior
 Rules are intended to encourage employees to avoid
certain behaviors

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 Types of Reinforcement (cont’d)

• Punishment
 Provides undesirable consequences for undesirable
behavior
 Reprimands, fines, suspensions, demotion, firing, etc.
 May reduce a specific undesirable behavior but cause
others to appear
 Is the most controversial method of motivation
 Is also the least effective method of motivation

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 Putting the Motivation Theories Together

• The groups of theories are complementary

• Each group of theories answers a different
question
 Content motivation theories
 What employee needs should be met on the job?
 Process motivation theories
 How do employees choose behavior to fulfill their needs?
 Reinforcement theory
 How can managers help employees behave in ways that
meet the organizational objectives?

3–43
 Discussion Question

• As a Leader , What is your motivation theory?

• What major methods or techniques, As a leader
you may plan to use on the job as a manager to
increase motivation and performance?

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