Power and Influence in the

Workplace
Handout # 7

This handout covers CLO#4

Discuss the influence tactics to be used to minimize organizational politics.

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 After finishing this unit the student
should be able to:
• Describe the sources of power in
organizations.
• Discuss the four contingencies of power
• Summarize the different types of influence
tactics.
• Distinguish influence from organizational
politics.
• Identify ways to minimize organizational
politics.
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The Meaning of Power
Power is the capacity of a person,
team, or organization to influence
others.
– Potential, not actual use
– People have power they don’t use
-- may not know they possess
– A perception

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Model of Power in Organizations
Sources
Sources Power
Power
of
of Power
Power over
over others
others

Legitimate
Legitimate
Reward
Reward
Coercive
Coercive
Contingencies
Contingencies
Expert
Expert
of
of Power
Power
Referent
Referent

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 Sources of Power
Legitimate • Agreement that people in certain
roles can request certain
behaviors of others
• Based on job descriptions and
mutual agreement
• Legitimate power range (zone of
indifference) varies across
national and org cultures.

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 Sources of Power
Legitimate

Reward • Ability to control the allocation of

rewards valued by others and to
remove negative sanctions
• Operates upward as well as
downward

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 Sources of Power
Legitimate

Reward • Ability to apply punishment

• Exists upward as well as downward
Coercive
• Peer pressure is a form of coercive
power

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 Sources of Power
Legitimate

Reward

Coercive
• The capacity to influence others
Expert by possessing knowledge or skills
that they value
• More employees gain expert
power over companies in
knowledge –based economy

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 Sources of Power
Legitimate

Reward

Coercive
• Occurs when others identify with,
Expert like, or otherwise respect the
person
Referent • Associated with charismatic
leadership

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 Contingencies of Power
Sources
Sources Power
Power
of
of Power
Power over
over others
others

Contingencies
Contingencies
of
of Power
Power

Substituability
Substituability
Centrality
Centrality
Discretion
Discretion
Visibility
Visibility

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 Increasing Nonsubstitutability
• Substitutability – it is the extent to which
people dependent on a resource have
alternatives. It refers to the availability of
alternatives.
• Increase non substituability by controlling the
resources
– exclusive right to perform medical procedures
– control over skilled labor
– exclusive knowledge to repair equipment
• Differentiate resource from others

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 Centrality
• Degree and nature of interdependence
between powerholder and others.
• Centrality is a function of:
– How many others are affected by you
– How quickly others are affected by you

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 Discretion and Visibility
• Discretion
– The freedom to exercise judgment
– Rules limit discretion, limit power
– Also a perception – acting as if you have discretion
• Visibility
– Power does not flow to unknown people in
the organization. One way to increase visibility
is to take people-oriented jobs and work on
projects that require frequent interaction with
senior executives.

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 Influencing Others
• Influence -- any behavior that attempts to alter
someone’s attitudes or behavior
– Applies one or more power bases
– Process through which people achieve
organizational objectives
– Operates up, down, and across the organizational
hierarchy

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 Types of Influence
Silent • Following requests without overt influence
Authority • Based on legitimate power, role modeling
• Common in high power distance cultures

Assertiveness • Actively applying legitimate and coercive

power (“vocal authority”)
• Reminding, confronting, checking,
threatening

more
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 Types of Influence (con’t)
Information • Manipulating others’ access to information
Control • Withholding, filtering, re-arranging
information

Coalition • Group forms to gain more power than

individuals alone
Formation
1. Pools resources/power
2. Legitimizes the issue
3. Power through social identity

more
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 Types of Influence (con’t)
Upward • Appealing to higher authority
Appeal • Includes appealing to firm’s goals
• Alliance or perceived alliance with higher
status person

• Logic, facts, emotional appeals

Persuasion • Depends on persuader, message content,
message medium, audience

more
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 Types of Influence (con’t)
Ingratiation/ • Increase liking by, or perceived similarity to
Impress. Mgt. the target person

• Promising or reminding of past benefits in

Exchange exchange for compliance
• Includes negotiation and networking

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 Organizational Politics

Behaviors that others perceive as self-

serving tactics for personal gain at the
expense of other people and possibly the
organization.

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Conditions for Organizational Politics

Tolerance of Scarce
Politics Resources
Conditions
Supporting
Organizational
Politics
Complex and
Organizational
Change Ambiguous
Decisions

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 Minimizing Political Behavior
1. Introduce clear rules for scarce resources
2. Effective organizational change practices
3. Suppress norms that support or tolerate self-
serving behavior
4. Leaders to become role models in
organizational citizenship
5. Give employees more control over their work
6. Keep employees informed
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 Organizational behavior
Organizational Conflict
Handout # 8
Covers CLO#5
Outline the conflict process for handling conflicts taking
place in the organization.

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 OBJECTIVES
• Define organizational conflict and explain the
conflict process.
• Identify the sources of conflict.
• Define negotiations.
• Outline the situational influences on
negotiations.

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 Conflict Defined

The process in which one

party perceives that its
interests are being
opposed or negatively
J. Tomaselli, Chicago Tribune

affected by another party.

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 The Conflict Process
Conflict
Sources of Outcomes
Conflict Positive

•Goals Conflict Decision

•Values Perceptions Manifest
Conflict Cohesiv
•Tasks •Conflict Style Negative
•Decisions •Turnove
•Resources Conflict •Overt
Behaviors
•Politics
•Rules Emotions
•Stress
•Communication

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 Sources of Conflict
Goal • Goals conflict with goals of others

Incompatibility
Different Values• Different beliefs due to unique
background, experience, training
and Beliefs • Caused by specialized tasks, careers
• Explains misunderstanding in cross-
cultural and merger relations

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 Sources of Conflict
Goal Three levels of interdependence
Incompatibility
Different Values Pooled Resource
andTask
Beliefs A B C
Sequential
nterdependence A B C
Reciprocal
A
B C
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 Sources of Conflict
Goal
Incompatibility
Different Values
andTask
Beliefs
nterdependence
Scarce • Increases competition for resources
Resources to fulfill goals

Ambiguity • Lack of rules guiding relations

• Encourages political tactics

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 Sources of Conflict
Goal
Incompatibility
Different Values
andTask
Beliefs
Lack of opportunity
nterdependence
Scarce
--reliance on stereotypes
Lack of ability
Resources
-- arrogant communication
heightens conflict perception
Ambiguity Lack of motivation
Communication -- toconflict causes lower motivation
communicate, increases

Problems
stereotyping

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 Conflict Perceptions
• Task-related conflict
– Conflict is aimed at issue, not parties
– Basis of constructive controversy
– Helps recognize problems, identify solutions, and
understand the issues better

• Socioemotional conflict
– Conflict viewed as a personal attack
– Foundation of conflict escalation
– Leads to dissatisfaction, stress, and turnover

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 Conflict Emotions
• Win-win orientation
– You believe parties will find a mutually beneficial
solution to their disagreement

• Win-lose orientation
– You believe that the more one party receives, the
less the other receives
– Tends to escalate conflict, use of power/politics

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 3. Manifest conflict
• Conflict perceptions and emotions usually
manifest themselves in the decisions and
overt (openly) behaviors of one party toward
the other. This may range from subtle
nonverbal behaviors to warlike aggression.

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 Organizational Conflict Outcomes
• Dysfunctional outcomes
– Diverts energy and resources
– Encourages organizational politics
– Encourages stereotyping
– Weakens knowledge management

• Potential benefits
– Improves decision making
– Strengthens team dynamics

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 Conflict Management Styles
High Forcing Problem-Solving
Assertiveness

Compromising

Avoiding Yielding

Low Cooperativeness High 34

 Choosing the Best Conflict Style
• Problem solving: tries to find mutually beneficial solution to the
disagreement.
– Win – win orientation
– Often best because only style that seeks an optimal outcome
– Doesn’t work when interests perfectly opposing
– Difficult when parties lack trust/openness
• Avoiding: tries to smooth over or avoid conflict situation altogether
– Best when socioemotional conflict is high
– Problem: doesn’t resolve conflict source, so may produce long-term
frustration
• Yielding: involves giving in completely to the other side’s wishes.
– May be necessary when:
1. the other party has substantially more power
2. the issue is less important to you as to the other party
– Problem: Other party develops higher future expectations

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Choosing the Best Conflict Style (con’t)
• Forcing: tries to win the conflict at the other’s expense
– Win – Lose orientation
– May be necessary when:
1. you know you are correct & dispute requires quick solution
2. the other party would take advantage of more cooperative strategies
– Problem: Fuels socioemotional conflict
• Compromising: involves looking for a position in which you make
concessions to some extent, matching other party’s concessions.
– Best when
1. little hope for mutual gain
2. both parties have equal power
3. both parties need to settle differences quickly
– Problem: “Good enough” solution that overlooks better solutions

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 Approaches in Managing Conflict
• Emphasizing
common objectives
rather than
conflicting sub-goals
• Reduces goal
incompatibility and
differentiation Ed Lallo

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 Reducing Differentiation

• Removing sources of different

values and beliefs
• Move employees around to
different jobs, departments,
and regions
• Other ways to reduce
differentiation:
– Common dress code and status
– Common work experiences Ed Lallo

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Improving Communication/Understanding

Employees understand and

appreciate each other’s views
through communication
– Informal gatherings
– Formal dialogue sessions
– Teambuilding activities
(such as drum circles, shown here)
G. Diggens, Soul Drums

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 Other Ways to Manage Conflict

Reduce Task Interdependence

– Dividing shared resources
– Combine tasks
– Use buffers

Increase Resources
– Duplicate resources

Clarify Rules and Procedures

– Clarify resource distribution
– Change interdependence

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Situational Influences on Negotiations

• Location

• Physical Setting

• Time Investment and

Deadlines

© Corel Corp. With permission.

• Audience

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 SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES ON NEGOTIATIONS

• Location – It is easier to negotiate on your own turf because you are

familiar with the negotiating environment and are able to maintain
comfortable routines.

• Physical setting – the physical distance between the parties and formality
of the setting can influence their orientation toward each other and the
disputed issues.

• Time passage and deadlines – the more time people invest in

negotiations, the stronger is their commitment to reaching an agreement.
Time deadlines may be useful to the extent that they motivate the parties
to complete negotiations.

• Audience characteristics – negotiators tend to act differently when their

audience observes the negotiation or has detailed information about the
process, compared to situations in which the audience sees only the end
results.
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 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Handout # 9
covers CLO # 6,7
Analyze the elements of organizational culture to improve corporate
performance.

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• Discuss the meaning and importance of
organizational culture.
• Identify the elements of organizational
culture.
• Discuss organizational culture through
artifacts.
• Formulate the strategies of merging
organizational cultures.

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• Organizational culture is the personality of the
organization.

• Culture is comprised of the assumptions,

values, norms and tangible signs
(artifacts) of organization members and
their behaviors.
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1. Provides an environment that motivates and
builds the organizational synergy
(cooperation) required to breed success.
2. An organizational culture establishes
standards.
3. Facilitates culture management that keeps an
organization competitive and employees
happier and healthier.

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The Basic Functions of Organizational Culture

Organizational
Culture

Provides a Clarifies and

sense of reinforces
Enhances
identity for standards of
commitment
members behaviour
to the
organization’s
mission

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• Pervasive, deep, largely subconscious, and
tacit code that gives the 'feel' of an
organization and determines what is
considered right or wrong, important or
unimportant, workable or unworkable in it,
and how it responds to the unexpected
crises, jolts, and sudden change.

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1. Physical structure
2. Language
3. Rituals and ceremonies
4. Stories and legends

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• A former British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill once said “We shape our buildings
thereafter they shape us”.

• A distinct impression is produced in the minds

of the people for example the entrance of the
building, the lobby, chairs, desks, office space,
wall hangings etc convey (send) cultural
feeling.

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Physical
•
Structures and Symbols- cont.
In many organizations, the size, shape, location
and age of buildings might suggest the
company’s emphasis on team work,
environmental friendliness, flexibility or any
other set of values. These structures may be
deliberately designed to shape the culture or
they are incidental artifacts of the existing
culture.
• Example: Employees have similarly sized
workspaces grouped into neighborhoods
facing a asymmetrical table that serves as a
central “park” for the team. It conveys team
oriented culture.
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• Example: How employees address co-
workers, express anger, describe customers,
compliment one another.

• Language highlights values held by

organizational culture. In the company
whirlpool the culture is known as PowerPoint
culture because it is one way communication
i.e from the executive to the employees who
have limited voice or say.
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53
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Assimilation Acquired company embraces
acquiring company’s culture.

Deculturation Acquiring firm imposes its culture

on unwilling acquired firm.

Integration Both cultures combined into a new

composite culture.

Separation Merging companies remain

separate with their own culture
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 Assimilation:
•It occurs when employees at the acquired
company willingly embrace the cultural values of
the acquiring organization.

•This tends to occur when the acquired company

has a weak culture that is dysfunctional whereas
the acquiring company has strong and focused on
clearly defined goals.
•Assimilation is rare.

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 • Deculturation
• Employees usually resist organizational
change, particularly when they are asked to
throw away personal and cultural values.
• Under these conditions, some acquiring
companies apply a deculturation strategy by
imposing their culture and business practices
on the acquired organizations. The acquiring
firm strips away artifacts and reward systems
that support old culture . People who cannot
accept the acquiring company’s culture are
terminated.
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 Integration
• Integration: This involves combining the two or
more cultures into one composite culture that
preserves the best features of the previous
cultures.

• Integration works best when people realize that

their existing cultures are ineffective and
therefore are motivated to adopt a new set of
dominant values.
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 Separation
•A separation strategy occurs where the merging
companies agree to remain distinct entities
with minimal exchange of culture or
organizational practices.

•This strategy is most appropriate when the two

merging companies are in unrelated industries
or operate in different countries. Culture differs
from industry to industry and from country to
country.

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 MANAGING CHANGE

covers CLO # 8:
Explain the Lewin’s Force Field Model in organizational change

60
 Learning Objectives

• Define change.
• Explain the Lewin’s force field analysis
model.
• Describe forces resisting organizational
change.
• Underline the methods for minimizing
resistance to change.

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 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

• Change - An event
that occurs when
something passes
from one state or
phase to another.

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 Lewin’s force field analysis model
• Lewin’s model of system wide change helps change agents diagnose the
forces that drive and restrain proposed organizational change.

• Change agent – anyone who possess enough knowledge and power to

guide and facilitate the organizational change effort.

• Driving forces – external environment - globalization, changing

workforce, information technology.

• The other side of the model represents the restraining forces that
maintain the status quo (The existing condition or state of affairs)
• Restraining forces – resistance to change.

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 Force Field Analysis Model:
Unfreezing-Changing-Refreezing
Desired Restraining
Conditions Forces

Restraining Driving
Forces
Forces
Restraining
Forces

Driving
Forces
Current Driving
Conditions Forces

Before During After

Change Change Change
“Unfreezing" involves finding a method of making it
possible for people to let get rid of an old pattern that
was counterproductive in some way.

“Changing: Moving to a new level" involves a

process of change--in thoughts, feelings, behavior,
or all three, that is in some way more liberating or
more productive.

"Refreezing" is establishing the change as a new

habit, so that it now becomes the "standard
operating procedure." Without some process of
refreezing, it is easy to backslide into the old ways.
Forces for Change

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 Forming an Urgency for
Change
• Inform employees about driving forces.
• Most difficult when organization is doing well.
• Customer-driven change:
– Adverse consequences for firm (If ignored).
– Human element energizes employees.
• Sometimes need to form urgency to change without
external drivers
– Requires persuasive influence
– Use positive vision rather than threats
1) Direct costs – People tend to block actions that result in higher direct costs or
lower benefits than the existing situation.

2) Saving face – Some people resist change as a political strategy to “prove” that
the decision is wrong or that the person encouraging change is incompetent.

3) Fear of the unknown – people resist change because they are worried that
they cannot adopt the new behaviors.

4) Breaking routines – here employees need to abandon the behavioral routines

that are no longer appropriate.

5) Incongruent (different) systems – Rewards, selection, training and other

control systems ensure that employees maintain desired role patterns.

6) Incongruent team dynamics – teams develop and enforce conformity to a set

of norms that guide behavior.

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Minimizing Resistance to Change
Communication • Highest priority and first strategy for
change
Learning • Improves urgency to change
• Reduces uncertainty (fear of
Involvement unknown)
• Problems -- time consuming and
Stress Mgt costly

Negotiation

Coercion

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Minimizing Resistance to Change
Communication • Provides new knowledge/skills
• Includes coaching and other forms of
Learning learning
• Helps break old routines and adopt
Involvement new roles
• Problems -- potentially time
Stress Mgt consuming and costly

Negotiation

Coercion

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Minimizing Resistance to Change
Communication
• Employees participate in change
Learning process
• Helps saving face and reducing fear of
Involvement
unknown
• Includes task forces, future search
Stress Mgt
events
Negotiation • Problems -- time-consuming,
potential conflict
Coercion

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Minimizing Resistance to Change
• When communication, learning, and
Communication
involvement are not enough to
minimize stress
Learning
For e.g. employees attend sessions
to discuss their worries about the
Involvement change.
• Potential benefits
Stress Mgt
– More motivation to change
– Less fear of unknown
Negotiation – Fewer direct costs
• Problems -- time-consuming,
Coercion expensive, doesn’t help everyone
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Minimizing Resistance to Change
• Influence by exchange -- reduces
Communication
direct costs
Learning
• For e.g. employees agree to
replace strict job categories with
multi-skilling in return for
Involvement
increased job security.
• May be necessary when people
Stress Mgt
clearly lose something and won’t
otherwise support change
Negotiation • Problems
– Expensive
Coercion – Gains compliance, not commitment

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Minimizing Resistance to Change
Communication
• When all else fails
Learning • Assertive influence
For e.g. company president tells
Involvement managers to “get on board” the
change or leave.
Stress Mgt • Radical form of “unlearning”
• Problems
Negotiation – Reduces trust
– May result in more subtle resistance
Coercion – Encourage politics to protect job

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 Refreezing the Desired Conditions
• Realigning organizational systems and team
dynamics with the desired changes
– Alter rewards to reinforce new behaviors
– Change career paths
– Revise information systems

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 Change Agents
• Engage in transformational leadership
– Develop the change vision
– Communicate the vision
– Act consistently with the vision
– Build commitment to the vision

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 Strategic Vision & Change
• Need a vision of the desired future state
• Identifies critical success factors for change
• Minimizes employee fear of the unknown
• Clarifies role perceptions

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