Animal

Diversity

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Tree of life -
Animals

animals

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 Protostomes

Bilateria (Eumetazoa) = deutrostomes + protostomes

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 General Features of Animals
• Heterotrophy
• Multicellularity
• Diverse tissues
• Active movement
• Sexual reproduction
• Embryonic
development
• No cell walls
• Diversity in habitat
• Diversity in form
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 General Features of Animals
• Heterotrophy
‒ Obtain energy & organic
molecules by ingesting
other organisms)
• Herbivores – consume
autotrophs
• Carnivores – consume
heterotrophs
• Detritovores – consume
decomposing organisms
• Omnivores – will
consume all of the above
• What is special about the
mouths of these fishes?
 General Features of Animals
• Multicellularity
‒ More complex bodies
• Tissues
‒ cells organized into structural
& functional units (except in
sponges)
• Active movement
‒ Directly related to evolution
of nerves & muscles
‒ Most can move; even sessile
animals can move limbs
(except sponges)
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 General Features of Animals
• Embryonic Development
‒ Zygote undergoes mitotic divisions
(cleavage)
‒ Embryos of most kinds of animals develop
into larva

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 General Features of Animals
• No cell walls
‒ More flexible
• Sexual Reproduction
‒ Cells formed in meiosis
function as gametes
‒ Haploid cells do not
divide by mitosis first
(rather fuse directly to
form the zygote)

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 General Features of Animals
• Heterotrophy
• Multicellularity
• Diverse tissues
• Active movement
• Sexual reproduction
• Embryonic
development
• No cell walls
• Diversity in habitat
• Diversity in form
(body plan) 9
 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
• Five key transitions can be noted in animal
evolution
‒ Differentiated Tissues
‒ Symmetry
‒ Evolution of a body cavity
‒ Embryonic development
‒ Segmentation

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 What is a body plan?
• A body plan is a group of structural and
developmental characteristics that can be
used to identify a group of animals, such
as a phylum
• All members of a particular group share
the same body plan at some point during
their development—in the embryonic,
larval, or adult stage

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 Evolution of the
Animal Body Plan
1. Evolution of tissues
• Parazoa (Sponges – the
simplest animals)
− lack defined tissues & organs
− Have specialized cells
− Some cells can dedifferentiate so
they can change function
• Eumetazoa (all other animals)
− Have distinct and well-defined
tissues
− Irreversible differentiation for
most cell types
 Poriferans (sponges)
• Body essentially a closed
end tube
• Lined with choanocytes
– Remember
Choanoflagellates?
– Move water through the tu
be
– Capture food particles and
engulf them
– Choanocytes can transform
into sperm cells for sexual
reproduction
 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
• During embryonic development in animals, cells
differentiate to take on specialized functions
• Differentiation allows specialization and organ
formation
• Differentiation is irreversible (except in sponges)
• The rarity of animals with the ability to
dedifferentiate cells suggest that cell specialization
carries an evolutionary advantage

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 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
2. Evolution of symmetry
• Sponges lack definite
symmetry
• Eumetazoa have a
symmetry defined along an
imaginary axis drawn
through the animal’s body
• There are two main types
of symmetry:

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 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
• Radial symmetry (Cnidaria, Echinodermata)
– Body parts arranged around central axis
– Can be bisected into two equal halves in any 2-D plane
 Cnidarians
• Jellyfishes and allies
• Carnivores
– Nematocysts to capture prey

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 Cnidarians
• Two body forms
– Some exist only as
medusa or polyps
– Others alternate
 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
• Bilateral symmetry (most animals) = Bilateria
– Body has right and left halves that are mirror images
– Only the sagittal plane bisects the animal into two
equal halves

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 Advantages of bilateral symmetry
• Bilaterally symmetrical
animals have two main
advantages over radially
symmetrical ones

1. Greater mobility
• Can move through the
environment in a consistent
direction

2. Anterior cephalization
• Evolution of a definite brain
area (central nervous
http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpito
system) cch/genbio/nervousnot.html
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 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
3. Evolution of a body cavity
• Sponges have a single
germ layer
• Cnidarians and
ctenophores are
diploblastic (two layers)
and lack organs
• Eumetazoa (Bilateria)
produce three germ layers
(triploblastic)
- Allows for development of
a body cavity
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 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
3. Evolution of a body cavity
• Germ layers
− Outer: ectoderm (becomes body
covering and nervous system)
− Middle: mesoderm (becomes skeleton
and muscles)
− Inner: endoderm (digestive organs and
intestines)

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 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
• Production of these three germ layers results in
a body cavity
‒ Space (filled with liquid or gas) surrounded by
mesoderm tissue that is formed during development
• Why is this important?
– Helps distribute food, wastes, hormones, etc. from
one end of animal to the other
– Hydrostatic skeleton - pressure makes cavity rigid
– Accommodates and supports organs
 Body Cavity
• Have evolved multiple times, resulting in
several forms
• Coelomates = Body cavity entirely within the
mesoderm
– Called the coelom (“hollow”)
 Body Cavity
• Acoelomates = No body cavity in the
mesoderm
 Body Cavity
• Pseudocoelomates = Body cavity between
mesoderm and endoderm
– Called the pseudocoel
 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
4. Evolution of different patterns of development
• The basic Bilaterian
pattern of
development:
– Mitotic cell divisions of
the egg form a hollow
ball of cells = blastula

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 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
• Blastula indents to form a two-layer-thick ball
with:
– Blastopore = Opening to outside
– Archenteron = Primitive body cavity (“beginning
intestine”)

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Evolution of the Animal Body Plan
Bilaterians can be divided into two
groups:
• Protostomes
‒ develop the mouth first from or near the
blastopore
• Deuterostomes
‒ develop the anus first from the blastopore

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 Protostome – “mouth first”
• Most Bilateria

• Protostomes develop
the mouth first from
or near the
blastopore
– Anus (if present)
develops either from
blastopore or another
region of embryo
 Types of animals
• Protostomes (mouth
first)
– Mollusc (cuttlefish)
– Insect (moth)
– Crustacean (lobster)

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 Deuterostome – “mouth second”
• Echinoderms and
chordates

• Deuterostomes develop
the anus first from the
blastopore
– Mouth develops later
from another region
of the embryo

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 Types of animals
• Deuterostomes (mouth
second)
– Echinoderm (sea
cucumber)
– Teleost (seahorse)
– Reptile (worm lizard)

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 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan

• Deuterostomes differ from protostomes in

three other fundamental embryological
features:
‒ Cleavage pattern of embryonic cells
‒ Developmental fate of cells
‒ Origination of coelom

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 Protostomes vs. Deuterostomes
Cleavage pattern
of embryonic cells

– Protostomes
• Spiral
(Spiralia)

– Deuterostomes
• Radial
Note position of second layer of cells (blue): offset
(spiral) vs on top of (radial) of first layer of cells

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 Protostomes vs. Deuterostomes
Developmental fate
of embryonic cells

– Protostomes
• Determinate

– Deuterostomes
• Indeterminate

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 Protostomes vs. Deuterostomes

Formation of coelom

– Protostomes
• Coelom forms directly
from a splitting of the
mesoderm

– Deuterostomes
• Coelom forms indirectly
from the archenteron
 Evolution of the Animal Body Plan

5. Segmentation

• Linear array of
compartments that look
alike, at least in the
embryo
– Underlies the body
organization of most
morphologically complex
animals
http://genesdev.cshlp.org/conte
nt/17/23/2870/F2.large.jpg
 Segmentation
• Segmentation provides two advantages:
1. Allows redundant organ systems in adults,
such as in annelids

Why is this an advantage?

2. Allows for more efficient and flexible
movement because each segment can move
semi-independently

3. Allows for diversification of segments,

allowing organisms to do more things
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Summary: Development patterns
Phylogenetic relationships of animals

Lophotrochozoans+Platyzoans

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Variation among Protostomes
Phylum

• Spiralians
– Spiral development
• Ecdysozoa
– Molting animals

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Platyzoans
• Platyhelminthes
(flatworms)
– Bilateral symmetry
– No body cavity (No coelom)
– No organs for O2 transport
to internal tissues
• Why not?
– Often parasitic
• Rotifera (rotifers)
– Bilateral symmetry
– Pseudocoelemate
– Tiny (look like ciliated
protists) but possess
developed internal organs
Lophotrochozoans
• Bryozoa
– Colonial
– Sexual and asexual forms
– This is a lophophore
• Ridge of cells around mouth
that bears tentacles for feeding
• Brachiopoda
– Small (4 – 9 cm)
– Mainly marine, bottom
dwellers
– Superficially like molluscs

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Lophotrochozoans
• Annelids
– Live in all environments
– Segmented, improved
locomotion
– Possess separate nerve
center (ganglia) for each
segment

• Molluscs
– Secondary loss of
segmentation
– Diverse body plans yielding
very different forms (octopi,
bivalves)
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Ecdysozoans

• Individuals in this
group increase in size
by molting their
external (exo-)
skeletons

• These are made of:

– cuticle (worm-like
organisms)
– chitin (arthropods)

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Nematodes
• Nematoda (roundworms)
– Exchange O2 and obtain nutrients
through thick cuticle and
intestine
– Predatory, parasitic
– One of the most abundant animal
groups
 Arthropods
• Most abundant animals
on the planet
– About 85% of all animal
species
• Development of chitin
– chitin is a strong,
flexible, waterproof
polysaccharide
– Allowed them to better
utilize terrestrial
environments
– How?
 Arthropods
• What did chitin allow arthropods to do?
Arthropods
• Trilobita (trilobites)
– Once dominant, now extinct
– Heavily armored
– Jointed appendages

• Chelicerata (Arachnids, sea

spiders)
– Abundant
– Important predators
– Body has two parts
• Anterior has four pairs of jointed
appendages
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 A few more “complex” Ecdysozoans: Arthropods
• Crustacea (lobsters, sow bugs,
sand fleas)
– Dominant marine arthropods
(some are freshwater or
terresterial)
– Body divided into 3 sections:
isopod • Head with fused segments and five
pairs of jointed appendages
• Thorax
• abdomen
• Uniramia (insects, myriapods)
– Most abundant animal group
– Primarily terrestrial
– Body divided into two or three
sections

myriapod 51
Phylogenetic relationships of animals

Lophotrochozoans+Platyzoans

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Who’s got a coelom?
Phylum

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Who’s got a
coelom?
 A = acoelomate
Who’s got a coelom? P = pseudocoelomate
C = coelomate
Assume the ancestor to Protostomes and
Deuterostomes had a true coelom

-
-
-
Lophotrochozoans+Platyzoans
A,P,C
P,C
C
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 Protostomes A = acoelomate
P P = pseudocoelomate
P C = coelomate
A
A • Assume that the
C ancestor of Bilateria
C
“C” C was coelomate
C • Lost coelom (A) in two
C
P Spiralians
C P – Convergent with
P diploblastic organisms
C
C • Pseudocoelomates (P)
C evolved at least twice,
C
C once in Platyzoa and
C Ecdysozoa
Deuterostomes are important too!

• Abundant
• Visible
• Lots of diversity
• Occupy most
available habitats
• We are one of
them!

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Evolutionary history of deuterostomes
• Echinoderms and chordates
appear to be very different but
are closest relatives
• Share common feature of
development
Evolutionary history of deuterostomes
 Echinoderms
• Water vascular system
starfish
– Tube feet for movement,
feeding, and O2 exchange
• Calcified internal plates
• Regeneration and asexual
reproduction (in some)
urchin

Sea cucumber
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Protochordates
• Hemichordata (acorn
worms)
– burrow in marine sediments
– unique feeding habits
– Have gill slits and nerve chord
but no notochord
 Chordates
• Urochordata (tunicates)
– tadpole-like larvae
– dorsal, hollow nerve chord
– short notochord
 Chordates
• Cephalochordata (lancelets)
– burrow in marine sediments
– capture food
– complete nerve chord
– complete notochord

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Milestones in Vertebrate evolution
• Invasions
– freshwater
– land
• Vertebral column
• Improved circulatory system
• Fins
• Jaws
• Limbs
• Lungs
• Amniotic egg
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Jawless fishes
 Evolution of jaws
• Evolved from gill arches
• Improved feeding