Projections

Review
• The Earth is a complex shape called a
geoid
• Ellipsoids are models that approximate the
shape of the Earth
• Ellipsoids are used in place of the geoid
because they are much simpler
mathematically
• Datums link the geoid (real shape) to the
ellipsoid (modeled shape)
 Map Projections
• The systematic transformation of points
on the Earth’s surface to corresponding
points on a plane surface
• In other words: Translating the Earth (3D) to
a flat map (2D)
• All projections distort the Earth in one or more
way(s)
• Selection of a projection is done to minimize
distortion for the particular application
 Why do we need a projection?
Creating maps
– we must choose an appropriate projection for the
map to communicate effectively
– part of good cartographic design

Analyzing geographic data

– along with the datum (and the associated ellipsoid)
and the coordinate system we must know the map
projection in which the data are stored
– identical projections are required for data to overlay
correctly
 Common types of projections

(a) Azimuthal (b) Cylindrical (c) Conic

Views of projected surfaces
Azimuthal Projections
 Cylindrical projections

                                                                                     

                                                              

You cut the cylinder along any meridian and unroll it

to produce your base map. The meridian opposite the
cut is called the central meridian (the red line). (ESRI
Press.)
 Cylindrical projections (Cont.)

                                                                                        

The light source's origin for the map projection is also the origin of the
                                                                               

spherical coordinate system, so simply extending the degree lines until

they reach the cylinder creates the map projection. The poles cannot be
displayed on the map projection because the projected 90 degree
latitude will never contact the cylinder. (ESRI Press)
Conic Projections
 Standard Lines and Points
• Location(s) on a projected map at the exact point or line
where the surface (cylinder, cone, plane) touches the
globe
• Standard lines and points are free of all distortion
• Distortion becomes more pronounced with increased
distance from the standard line or point
 Additional Projection Features
• Projections get a lot more complicated
because we can:
• 1) Change the aspect
• 2) Move the light source
• 3) Change where the paper touches the
globe
Projection Aspects

cylindrical

conical

planar
 Light source options
– Orthographic (light source infinitely far away – think of the sun)
– Stereographic (the point opposite of the point of tangency of the
projection)
– Vertical (how the earth would look from space)
– Gnomonic (center of earth)
Change where the paper touches
the globe
– Tangent case – the paper rests against the surface of
the globe
– Secant case – the paper goes into and back out of the
globe (intersecting at 2 standard lines)

Standard line
Standard line
Standard line
Example of tangent and secant
azimuthal projections
 Preservation of Properties

• Map projections always introduce

some sort of distortion. How to deal
with it?
• Choose a map projection that preserves the globe
properties appropriate for the application

• Note: The preservation of properties offers an

alternative -- perhaps more meaningful -- way to
categorize projections
 Map projections distortion
Projections cause distortion. The projection process will
distort one or more of the four spatial properties listed
below. Distortion of these spatial properties is inherent
in any map.

Shape
Area
Distance
Direction
 Preservation of properties
Conformal projections
• -preserve shape
• shape preserved for local (small) areas
(angular relationships are preserved at each point)
• sacrifices preservation of area away from standard point/lines
Equivalent/Equal-Area projections
• -preserve area
• all areas are correctly sized relative to one another
• sacrifices preservation of shape away from standard
point/lines
Equidistant projections
• -preserve distance
• scale is correct from one to all other points on the
map, or along all meridians
• however, between other points on map, scale is
incorrect

Azimuthal projections
• -preserve direction
• azimuths (lines of true direction) from the center
point of the projection to all other points are correct
A Few Common Map Projections Used For Display

                                                                           

                                                                           
 Map Projections Commonly Used For GIS
Applications

• Mercator: True compass directions are

maintained (lines of latitude and longitude
are at right angles to each other), but area
is distorted toward the poles
• This is a cylindrical projection
• We often use Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM), which is a coordinate
system applied to a Mercator projection
 Map Projections Commonly Used For GIS
Applications

• In the US these are also common projections

– Lambert Conformal Conic – a conic projection that
preserves shape
– Albers Equal Area – a conic projection that preserves
area
• Remember that these projections (including
UTM) can be associated with the same datum
(e.g., NAD 1983, NAD 1927, etc.), which is in
turn associated with a corresponding ellipsoid
(e.g., NAD 1983 uses the GRS 1980 ellipsoid)
True Direction & Distance
 Tissot’s Indicatrix
The Tissot indicatrix is a figure that shows how a projection changes the geometry.   
It does so in a simple manner: by showing what a circle would look like on the map.

This is an equal area projection.

Blue circles are the projected

circles (here, ellipses).

Grey circles are reference circles.

Radii are for reference regarding

distance distortion.
 Area scale

An indicator of distortion on projected maps.

s = "area scale" = product of semi-axes of circle/ellipse.
Conformal vs. Equal-area projections
 Examples of projections
• Do the following examples clear up some
myths we have grown to believe?
Equidistant example
Azimuthal Equidistant
projection

- planar with standard

point centered on
North Korea
 True Direction & Distance
Gnomonic

- planar with standard

point located at NYC

...compare with Mercator projection:

Example: What projection might
this map be in?
 Compromise projections
• ...don’t preserve any properties completely, but achieve compromise between
them

Example: Robinson projection - designed for world maps

 Wrap-Up
• Projections are a large and complicated topic to
study
• There are many more that we didn’t talk about
• In practice, we generally stick with just a few
common ones (e.g., whatever one our office
typically uses)
– Only when a new and different task comes up do we
start to investigate IF a different projection is needed
and WHAT that projection should be
• If you’re still curious about them, this is a pretty
good site
– http://www.progonos.com/furuti/MapProj/
 Odds and ends
• What night is good for an open lab?
– Openings Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday