Ch.3-1.

Spatial and
mechanical variables
measurement

EET 238
Instrumentation
 Contents

Objectives
Introduction
1) Displacement measurement
2) Level measurement
3) Velocity measurement
4) Acceleration, vibration, and shock measurement
5) Strain measurement
6) Force measurement
7) Torque measurement

2
 Objectives

By the end of the presentation, you will able

to:
 Explain the different methods of
 Displacement measurement
 Level measurement
 Velocity measurement
 Acceleration, vibration, and shock measurement
 Strain measurement
 Force measurement
 Torque measurement

3
 Introduction
 In general all the sensors we have seen in chapter two
can be configured or arranged in measurement system
to measure
– Spatial variables such as – Displacement (Linear and angular),
Thickness, Proximity, Distance, Position, Location, Altitude,
Level, Area, Volume, Angle, Tilt, Velocity, Acceleration,
Vibration, and Shock
– Mechanical variables for solid objects such as -Mass and
Weight, Density, Strain, Force, Torque and Power
 We will see an overview of the some of the techniques
of measuring portion of these physical variables on the
next slides.
4
 1. Displacement measurement
 Displacement measurement can be realized using
– Resistive displacement sensors-pot
– Inductive displacement sensor
– Capacitive displacement sensor
– Optical encoder displacements sensor
– Magnetic displacement sensors
– Piezoelectric

5
 1.1 Resistive displacement
measurement- pot
 Resistive displacement sensors are commonly termed
potentiometers or “pots.”
 A pot is an electromechanical device containing an
electrically conductive wiper that slides against a fixed
resistive element according to the position or angle of
an external shaft.
 Pots are available in great variety, with specific kinds
optimized for specific applications. Position
measurement requires a high-quality pot designed for
extended operation. Avoid pots classified as trimmers,
rheostats, attenuators, volume controls, panel controls,
etc. Instead, look for precision potentiometers
6
 Types of precision potentiometers
 Precision pots are available in rotary, linear-motion, and string pot
forms.
 String pots — also called cable pots, yo-yo pots, cable extension
transducers, and draw wire transducers — measure the extended
length of a spring-loaded cable. String pots are available with
maximum extensions exceeding 50 m.
 Rotary pots are available with single- or multiturn abilities:
commonly 3, 5, or 10 turns.
 Linear-motion pots are available with maximum strokes ranging
from roughly 5 mm to over 4 m.
 Pot manufacturers usually specify a pot’s type, dimensions,
resistive element composition, electrical and mechanical
parameters, and mounting method
7
 Measurement Techniques
 To measure displacement, a pot must attach to mechanical
fixtures and components.
 The housing typically mounts to a stationary reference frame,
while the shaft couples to a moving element.
 The input motion (i.e., the motion of interest) can couple directly or
indirectly to the pot’s shaft.
 A direct connection, although straightforward, carries certain
limitations:
– The input motion maps 1:1 to the shaft motion
– The input motion cannot exceed the pot’s mechanical travel limits
– Angle measurement requires a rotary pot; position measurement
requires a linear-motion pot
– The pot must mount close to the motion source
– The input motion must be near-perfectly collinear or coaxial with the
8 shaft axis
 Mechanisms
 There are ways to overcome these limitations: that
extend a precision potentiometer’s capabilities
– Mechanisms with a mechanical advantage scale
motion and adjust travel limits.
– Mechanisms that convert between linear and rotary
motion enable any type of pot to measure any kind of
motion.
– Transmission mechanisms distance a pot from the
measured motion.
– Compliant mechanisms compensate for
misalignment.
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 Common mechanisms
a) Belts and
pulleys
b) Rack and-
pinions
c) Lead-
screws
d) Cabled
drums
e) Cams
f) Bevel
gears
g) Spur
gears
10
 2. Level measurement
 Level is defined as the filling height of a liquid or bulk material,
for example, in a tank or reservoir.
 Generally, the position of the surface is measured relative to a
reference plane, usually the tank bottom.
 Various classic and modern methods exist to measure product
level in process and storage tanks in the chemical, petrochemical,
pharmaceutical, water, and food industries, in mobile tanks on
vehicles and ships, but also in natural reservoirs like seas, dams,
lakes, and oceans. Typical tank heights are approximately between
0.5 m and 40 m.
 Two different tasks can be distinguished:
– continuous level measurements (level indication, LI),
– level switches (LS) (e.g., to detect an alarm limit to prevent
overfilling).
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 Modes of level measurement.
 Principal operational
modes of level
measurement.
 Many level devices are
mounted on top of the
tank and measure
primarily the distance d
between their mounting
position and the
product’s surface.
 The level L is then
calculated, defining the
tank height h as
constant
L= h-d
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 Methods of level measurement
 Measurements using the effects of density-the product in the tank has an
effect due to its density ρ,
– producing buoyancy to a solid submerged into the liquid, or
– executing a force due to its weight.
 Time-of-flight measurements -An indirect measurement of level
– It is evaluating the time-of-flight of a wave propagating through the atmosphere
above the liquid or solid.
– The increasing demand of industry for nonintrusive continuous level gaging
systems has been instrumental in accelerating the development of technologies
using time-of-flight measurements.
 Level measurements by detecting physical properties- detecting physical
parameters that are significantly different between the atmosphere and the
product; for example, dielectric permittivity, conductivity, or viscosity. Two
types are possible:
– continuous measurement with an integral sensor, or
– switching by a point measurement when the sensor comes in contact with the
13 product
 Displacer
 Displacers measure the
buoyancy of a solid body that is
partially submerged in the liquid.
 The change in weight is
measured.
 Figure illustrates the parameters
used for these calculations.
 The result for level Ld, related to
the lower edge of the displacer
is:

14
 Float level meters
 Floats are similar to displacers,
but are swimming on the liquid’s
surface due to the buoyancy.
 Hence, the density of the float
must be lower than the density
of the liquid.
 A counter weight balances the
float that swims on the liquid’s
surface. Its position represents
the level

15
 Float level meters
 The float contains a magnet that
contacts a reed switch inside a
guide tube.
 Using a bistable relay, this
system is used as a level
switch.
 One can also insert multiple
relays into the tube to achieve
different switching points for
quasicontinuous operation.

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 Hydrostatic pressure measurement
 A hydrostatic pressure p, caused by the
weight of the product, is present at the
bottom of a tank, in addition to the
atmospheric pressure p0:

 Pressure gages at the bottom of the tank

measure this pressure. In process tanks
with varying atmospheric pressure, a
differential pressure measurement is
achieved by measuring the difference
between the pressure at the bottom and
that at the top of the tank, above the liquid.

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 Capacitive level measurement
 In most applications, a rod
electrode is arranged vertically in
the tank.
 The metallic vessel acts as a
reference electrode.
 The result depends on the
permittivity ε2 of the product
 For such a rotationally
symmetrical configuration, the
capacitance C of an insulated
electrode changes with level L
according to:

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 3. Velocity measurement
 The linear velocity of an object is defined as the time rate of
change of position of the object.
 The magnitude of velocity is called the speed (or pace), and it
quantifies how fast an object is moving. This is what the
speedometer in a car tells us.
 The rotational velocity (or angular velocity) of an object is defined
as the time rate of change of angular position, and it is a
measure of how fast an object is turning. It is completely
analogous to linear velocity, but for angular motion. Common units
are revolutions per minute (RPM).

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 Applications
 Applications for velocity measurement include:
– Controlling the speed at which metal stock is fed into a machine
tool. If the metal is fed too quickly the result could be premature
tool wear or it could even lead to machine failure. Feeding the
material too slowly will reduce the yield of the machine tool.
– Measuring the approach speed of a robotic tool onto its target.
– Monitoring the speed of a generator in an electric power station.
– An airport radar system measuring the speed of an approaching
aircraft using the Doppler effect.
– Measuring an automobile’s wheel speed in order to provide
feedback to an antilock brake system.

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 Measurement of linear velocity
 Velocity is often obtained by differentiation of displacement or
integration of acceleration. As background information for this, the
necessary equations are given below.
 The techniques of measuring velocity can be divided into two
categories: one will be called “referenced-based methods” and the
other “seismic or inertial referenced transducers.”
 Referenced-based methods refer to measurements made for
which the instrumentation has component(s) on both the moving
object and the reference frame for the measurement.
 The seismic transducers do not require contact with the reference
frame. However, they give a speed relative to the transducer speed
at the start of the test. The initial motion must be determined from
other considerations in the test setup and added to the relative
speed.
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 Measurement of angular velocity
 It is often applied to rotating machinery such as pumps, engines,
and generators.
 In most cases, the measurement of rpm involves the generation of a
pulse train or sine wave whose frequency is proportional to angular
velocity. The measuring technologies using pulse trains and waves
include ac and dc generator tachometers, optical sensors, Hall-
effect sensors, etc. They are relative measurements because one is
measuring the motion between two bodies.
 Another class of measurement problem is that of moving or inertial
bodies. In this case, a measurement of absolute motion is
performed. Some fixed reference must be stated or implied. This
reference is often the Earth. A universal reference is sometimes
required for celestial measurements. These inertial measurements
are typically taken with gyroscope-type devices.
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 Electrical tachometer generator
 A rotating generator produces a voltage signal proportional to the
rotational velocity of the input shaft.
 The ac generator produces an ac voltage output with a frequency
proportional to rotational speed.

23
 4. Acceleration measurement
 Acceleration is measured by accelerometers as an important
parameter for general-purpose absolute motion measurements,
and vibration and shock sensing.
 Accelerometers are commercially available in a wide variety of
ranges and types to meet diverse application requirements. They
are manufactured small in size, light in weight, rugged, and robust to
operate in harsh environment.
 The majority of industrial accelerometers can be classified as either
deflection type or null-balance type. Large number of practical
accelerometers and those used in vibration and shock
measurements are usually the deflection types, whereas those used
for measurements of motions of vehicles, aircraft, etc. for navigation
purposes may be either type.
 In general, null-balance types are used when extreme accuracy is
24 needed.
 Basic accelerometer
 A typical deflection-type
seismic accelerometer - the
seismic mass is suspended
by a spring or cantilever
inside a rigid frame. The
frame is connected to the
vibrating structure; as
vibrations take place, the
mass tends to remain fixed
so that relative
displacements can be picked
up. They are manufactured
in many different types and
sizes and they exhibit
diverse characteristics.
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 Accelerometer classification
 In addition to classifying into deflection or null type, for practical
purposes, accelerometers can also be classified as mechanical or
electrical, depending on whether the restoring force or other
measuring mechanism is based on mechanical properties, (e.g.,
the law of motion, distortion of a spring or fluid dynamics, etc.) or on
electrical or magnetic forces.
 There are:
– Electromechanical Force-Balance (Servo) Accelerometers
– Piezoelectric Accelerometers
– Piezoresistive Accelerometers
– Differential-Capacitance Accelerometers
– Differential-Capacitance Accelerometers

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 5. Strain measurement
 The terms stress and strain are used to describe loads on and
deformations of solid materials.
 The stress σ, is the applied force F, divided by the cross-sectional
area A. The resulting strain ε, is the length change ∆L, divided by
the initial length L. The bar elongates in the direction the force is
pulling (longitudinal strain εL) and contracts in the direction
perpendicular to the force (transverse strain εt).
 When the strain is not too large, many solid materials behave like
linear springs; that is, the displacement is proportional to the applied
force.
 Several types of sensors are used to measure strain. These include
piezoresistive gages (foil or wire strain gages and semiconductor
strain gages), piezoelectric gages (polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
film and quartz), fiber optic gages, birefringent films and materials,
27 and Moiré grids.
Unbonded wire strain gage.
 6. Force measurement
 Force, which is a vector quantity, can be defined as an
action that will cause an acceleration or a certain
reaction of a body.
 The determination or measurement of forces must yield
to the following considerations:
– If the forces acting on a body do not produce any
acceleration, they must form a system of forces in
equilibrium.
– The system is then considered to be in static
equilibrium.

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 Nature of force
 The forces experienced by a body can be classified into two
categories: internal, where the individual particles of a body act on
each other, and external otherwise.
 If a body is supported by other bodies while subject to the action
of forces, deformations and/or displacements will be produced at
the points of support or contact.
– The internal forces will be distributed throughout the body until
equilibrium is established, and then the body is said to be in a
state of tension, compression, or shear.
– In considering a body at a definite section, it is evident that all
the internal forces act in pairs, the two forces being equal and
opposite, whereas the external forces act singly.

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 Stress and strain
 When a metal is loaded in (a) uniaxial tension, (b) uniaxial
compression, or (c ) simple shear, it will behave elastically until a
critical value of normal stress (S) or shear stress (τ) is reached,
and then it will deform plastically.
 In the elastic region, the atoms are temporarily displaced but return
to their equilibrium positions when the load is removed.

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 Stress and strain defined
 Normal stress (S ) and strain (e) in the elastic region
are defined as

 Poisson’s ratio (v) is the ratio of transverse

(e2) to direct (e1) strain in tension or
compression.

 In the elastic region, v is between 1/4 and

32 1/3 for metals.
 Hooke’s Law
 The basis for force measurement
 Characterize the physical behavior of a body under
external forces.
 The relation between stress and strain in the elastic
region is given by Hooke’s law:
S = E.e ( tension or compression)
 Where E is the Young’s modulus of elasticity.

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 Basic methods
 An unknown force may be measured by the following
means:
– Balancing the unknown force against a standard
mass through a system of levers.
– Measuring the acceleration of a known mass.
– Equalizing it to a magnetic force generated by the
interaction of a current-carrying coil and a magnet.
– Distributing the force on a specific area to generate
pressure, and then measuring the pressure.
– Converting the applied force into the deformation of
an elastic element.
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 Sensors for force measurement
 Various sensing techniques can be utilized to monitor
forces such as:
– Strain gauges (piezoresistive sensors)
– Piezoelectric
– Capacitive force transducers
– Force sensing resistors (conductive polymers)
– Magnetoresistive force sensors
– Torsional balance

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 Load cells
 A general subgroup of the available force measuring techniques
 Are comprised generally of a rigid outer structure, some medium
that is used for measuring the applied force, and the measuring
gage.
 Are used for sensing large, static or slowly varying forces with little
deflection and are a relatively accurate means of sensing forces.
Typical accuracies are of the order of 0.1% of the full-scale
readings.
 Various strategies can be employed for measuring forces that are
strongly dependent on the design of the load cell such as
– Hydraulic
– Pneumatic
– Piezoresistive (strain gauges)
– Piezoelectric
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 Hydraulic and pneumatic load cells
 Used for sensing large forces for relatively little cost.
 The hydraulic load cell employs a very stiff outer structure with an
internal cavity filled with a fluid. Application of a load increases the
oil pressure, which can be read off an accurate gage.
 Application of a load increases the oil pressure, which can be read
off an accurate gage.

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 7. Torque measurement
 Torque, speed, and power are the defining mechanical variables
associated with the functional performance of rotating machinery.
 The ability to accurately measure these quantities is essential for
determining a machine’s efficiency and for establishing operating
regions that are both safe and conducive to long and reliable
services.
 On-line measurements of these quantities enable real-time control,
help to ensure consistency in product quality, and can provide early
indications of impending problems.
 Torque and power measurements are used in testing advanced
designs of new machines and in the development of new machine
components.
 Torque measurements also provide a well-established basis for
controlling and verifying the tightness of many types of threaded
38 fasteners.
 Angular displacement, velocity,
and acceleration
 Rotation is a change in the angular position of a reference point on
the body, i.e., as its angular displacement, ∆θ, over some time
interval, ∆t.
 The motion of that point, and therefore of the whole body, is
characterized by its clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW)
direction and by its angular velocity, ω = ∆θ/∆t.
 If during a time interval ∆t, the velocity changes by ∆ω, the body is
undergoing an angular acceleration, α = ∆ω/∆t.
 With angles measured in radians, and time in seconds, units of ω
become radians per second (rad s–1) and of α, radians per second
per second (rad s–2). Angular velocity is often referred to as
rotational speed and measured in numbers of complete revolutions
per minute (rpm) or per second (rps)

39
 Torque
 Rotation can be initiated, altered in velocity, or terminated only by a
tangential force Ft acting at a finite radial distance l from the axis.
 The effectiveness of such forces increases with both Ft and l;
hence, their product, called a torque, is the activating quantity for
rotational motion.
 A force F acting at an angle β to the tangent at a
point P, distant l (the moment arm) from the
axis. The torque T is found from the tangential
component of F as:
T = Ftl =(F cos β)l
 Torques tending to cause rotation in CW and
CCW directions are assigned opposite signs.
 The unit of torque is Newton meter (N·m).
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 Torsional stress and strain
 Any torques applied from external sources must be balanced
by equal and directionally opposite internal torques from
adjoining portions of the body.
 Internal torques are transmitted between adjoining portions by
the collective action of stresses over their common cross-
sections.
 The shear stress a round cross-section (e.g. a typical shaft)
depends on the diameter and the transmitting a torque.
 The shear stress results a proportional shear strain and
twisting the solid round shaft through a certain angle over its
length.
 Shear strain and the twisting angle became the key basis for
41 measuring both force and torque.
 Sensors for torque measurement
 Various physical interactions serve to convert force, shear stress or
shear strain, and thus torque, into proportional electrical signals.
 Each requires that some axial portion of the shaft be dedicated to
the torque sensing function
– Strain gage
– Magnetoelastic transducers (piezomagnetic sensors)

 Torsional strain in the shaft alters the

electrical resistance for four strain
gages (two not seen) connected in a
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
 In the embodiment shown, electrical
connections are made to the bridge
through slip rings and brushes
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