Artificial Intelligence

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 outline

• What is AI?
• The foundations of AI
• A brief history of AI
• The state of the art
• Introductory problems

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What is AI?

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 What is AI?

• Intelligence: “ability to learn, understand and think”

(Oxford dictionary)

• AI is the study of how to make computers think which at

the moment people do better.

• Examples: Speech recognition, game playing, theorm

proving ,medical diagnostics etc

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 Intelligence Vs Artificial Intelligence
1. Natural
2. Increase with experience and also
hereditary.
3. Highly refined and no electricity
from outside is required to
generate output. Rather
knowledge is good for
intelligence.
4. No one is an expert. we can
always get better solution from
another human being.
5. Intelligence increase by
supervised and unsupervised
learning.
1. Programmed by human being
2. Nothing called hereditary but
systems do learn from
experience.
3. It is in computer system and we
need electrical energy to get
output. knowledge base is
required to generate output
4. Experts systems are made which
have the capability of many
individual person’s experiences
and ideas.
5. We can increase AI capabilities
by other means
 AI-Class

• Strong AI
Machines that act
intelligently have real,
conscious minds.
“Doing is called strong AI”
Thinking level at least equal
to humans.
• Weak AI
Machines can be made to act
as if they were intelligent.
“Helping” is called weak AI
Solve problem in limited
domain
 What is AI?

Thinking humanly Thinking rationally

Acting humanly Acting rationally

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 Acting Humanly: The Turing Test

• Alan Turing (1912-1954)

• “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” (1950)

Imitation Game
Human

Human Interrogator
AI System

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 Acting Humanly: The Turing Test

• Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30%

chance of fooling a lay person for 5 minutes.

• Anticipated all major arguments against AI in

following 50 years.

• Suggested major components of AI: knowledge,

reasoning, language, understanding, learning.

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Thinking Humanly: Cognitive Modelling

• Not content to have a program correctly solving a problem.

More concerned with comparing its reasoning steps
to traces of human solving the same problem.

• Requires testable theories of the workings of the

human mind: cognitive science.

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 Thinking Rationally: Laws of Thought

• Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify “right

thinking”, i.e., irrefutable reasoning processes.

• Formal logic provides a precise notation and rules for

representing and reasoning with all kinds of things in the
world.

• Obstacles:
 Informal knowledge representation.
 Computational complexity and resources.

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 Acting Rationally

• Acting so as to achieve one’s goals, given one’s beliefs.

• Does not necessarily involve thinking.

• Advantages:
 More general than the “laws of thought” approach.
 More amenable to scientific development than human-
based approaches.

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 Task Domains of AI
• Mundane Tasks:
– Perception
• Vision
• Speech
– Natural Languages
• Understanding
• Generation
• Translation
– Common sense reasoning
– Robot Control
• Formal Tasks
– Games : chess, checkers etc
– Mathematics: Geometry, logic,Proving properties of programs
• Expert Tasks:
– Engineering ( Design, Fault finding, Manufacturing planning)
– Scientific Analysis
– Medical Diagnosis
– Financial Analysis

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 AI Technique
• Intelligence requires Knowledge
• Knowledge posesses less desirable properties such as:
– Voluminous
– Hard to characterize accurately
– Constantly changing
– Differs from data that can be used
• AI technique is a method that exploits knowledge that should be
represented in such a way that:
– Knowledge captures generalization
– It can be understood by people who provide it
– It can be easily modified to correct errors.
– It can be used in variety of situations

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 The State of the Art

• Computer beats human in a chess game.

• Computer-human conversation using speech recognition.
• Expert system controls a spacecraft.
• Robot can walk on stairs and hold a cup of water.
• Language translation for webpages.
• Home appliances use fuzzy logic.
• ......

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 Tic Tac Toe

• Three programs are presented. The programs in this series

increase in:
– Their complexity
– Their Use of generalization
– Clarity of their knowledge
– Extensibility of their approach

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Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe

X X
o

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 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe
Program 1:
Data Structures:
• Board: 9 element vector representing the board, with 1-9 for each square. An
element contains the value 0 if it is blank, 1 if it is filled by X, or 2 if it is
filled with a O
• Movetable: A large vector of 19,683 elements ( 3^9), each element is 9-
element vector.
Algorithm:
1. View the vector as a ternary number (base 3). Convert it to a
decimal number.
2. Use the computed number as an index into Move-Table and access the
vector stored there.
3. Set the new board to that vector.

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 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe

Comments:
This program is very efficient in time.

1. A lot of space to store the Move-Table.

2. A lot of work to specify all the entries in the

Move-Table.

3. Difficult to extend as in 3d the move table entries will rise to

3^27
4. It is unlikely to enter all the entries in a movetable without
making any mistake.
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Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

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 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe
Program 2:
Data Structure: A nine element vector representing the board. But instead of using
0,1 and 2 in each element, we store 2 for blank, 3 for X and 5 for O
Turn: An integer indicating which move of the game is about to be played; 1
indicates the first move and 9 indicates the last move.
Algorithm: three sub procedures.
Make2: returns 5 if the centre square is blank. Else any non corner blank sq.
(2,4,6,8)
Posswin(p): Returns 0 if the player p cannot win on his next move; otherwise it
returns the number of the square that constitutes a winning move. If the
product is 18 (3x3x2), then X can win. If the product is 50 ( 5x5x2) then O
can win.
Go(n): Makes a move in the square n
Strategy:
Turn = 1 Go(1)
Turn = 2 If Board[5] is blank, Go(5), else Go(1)
Turn = 3 If Board[9] is blank, Go(9), else Go(3)
Turn = 4 If Posswin(X)  0, then Go(Posswin(X)) else Go( Make 2)
Turn =5 If Passwin(O) 0, then Go(Posswin(O)) else If Posswin(X)  0, then
Go(Posswin(X)) else Go( Make 2).............
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 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe

Comments:

1. Not efficient in time, as it has to check several

conditions before making each move.

2. Easier to understand the program’s strategy.

3. Hard to generalize.

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Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe
Program 3:

8 3 4
1 5 9
6 7 2
15  (8 + 5)
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 Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe

Comments:

1. Checking for a possible win is quicker.

2. Human finds the row-scan approach easier, while

computer finds the number-counting approach more
efficient.

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Introductory Problem: Question Answering

“Mary went shopping for a new coat. She found a red

one she really liked. When she got it home, she
discovered that it went perfectly with her favourite
dress”.

Q1: What did Mary go shopping for?

Q2: What did Mary find that she liked?

Q3: Did Mary buy anything?

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Introductory Problem: Question Answering

Program 1:

1. Match predefined templates to questions to generate

text patterns.
2. Match text patterns to input texts to get answers.

“What did X Y” “What did Mary go shopping for?”

“Mary go shopping for Z”

Z = a new coat
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Introductory Problem: Question Answering

Program 2:
Structured representation of sentences:

Event2: Thing1:
instance: Finding instance: Coat
tense: Past colour: Red
agent: Mary
object: Thing 1

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Introductory Problem: Question Answering

Program 3:
Background world knowledge:
C finds M

C leaves L C buys M

C leaves L

C takes M

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