Artificial Intelligence

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• There are three types of intelligence:
– One kind understands things for itself.
– Second appreciated what others can understand.
– Third understands neither for itself nor thoughts of others.

1. Excellent
2. Good
3. Useless

“Niccolo Machiavelli”, (1469-1527)

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 What is AI?

• Intelligence: “ability to learn, understand and think”

– Human intelligence, Artificial Intelligence.
• AI is the study of how to make computers to make things
which at the moment people do better.
– In simple words
• “AI is making machines to think”
• Machines can think, can act like humans.
• Examples: Speech recognition, Smell, Face, Object,
Intuition, Inference, Learning new skills, Decision making.

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 What is Artificial Intelligence
(John McCarthy )

• What is artificial intelligence?

• It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand
human intelligence, but AI does not have to confine itself to methods that are
biologically observable.

• what is intelligence?
• Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.

• Isn't there a solid definition of intelligence that doesn't depend on relating it to

human intelligence?
• Not yet.
 Artificial Intelligence
• Definition. The science of developing methods to
solve problems usually associated with human
intelligence.
• Alternate definitions:
– building intelligent entities or agents;
– making computers think or behave like humans
– studying the human thinking through computational
models;
– generating intelligent behavior, reasoning, learning.
 Hierarchy of information

• Fact – True / False

• Data
• (Processed)
• Knowledge
• Intelligence
• Expert / decision making

“Intelligence requires knowledge”

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 What is AI?

Thinking humanly Thinking rationally

Acting humanly Acting rationally

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 Visions of AI
• Systems that think like humans.
• Systems that act like humans.
• Systems that think rationally.
• Systems that act rationally.

• A distinction between being intelligent and acting

intelligently, and being like a human, or solving similar
problems (not necessarily the same way).
 The Foundations of AI

• Philosophy (423 BC  present):

 Logic, methods of reasoning.
 Mind as a physical system.
 Foundations of learning, language, and rationality.

• Mathematics (c.800  present):

 Formal representation and proof.
 Algorithms, computation, decidability, tractability.
 Probability.

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 The Foundations of AI

• Psychology (1879  present):

 Adaptation.
 Phenomena of perception and motor control.
 Experimental techniques.

• Linguistics (1957  present):

 Knowledge representation.
 Grammar.


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 A Brief History of AI

• The gestation of AI (1943  1956):

 1943: McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain.
 1950: Turing’s “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”.
 1956: McCarthy’s name “Artificial Intelligence” adopted.

• Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952  1969):

 Early successful AI programs: Samuel’s checkers,
Newell & Simon’s Logic Theorist, Gelernter’s Geometry
Theorem Prover.
 Robinson’s complete algorithm for logical reasoning.


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 A Brief History of AI

• A dose of reality (1966  1974):

 AI discovered computational complexity.
 Neural network research almost disappeared after
Minsky & Papert’s book in 1969.

• Knowledge-based systems (1969  1979):

 1969: DENDRAL by Buchanan et al..
 1976: MYCIN by Shortliffle.
 1979: PROSPECTOR by Duda et al..



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 A Brief History of AI

• AI becomes an industry (1980  1988):

 Expert systems industry booms.
 1981: Japan’s 10-year Fifth Generation project.

• The return of NNs and novel AI (1986  present):

 Mid 80’s: Back-propagation learning algorithm reinvented.
 Expert systems industry busts.
 1988: Resurgence of probability.
 1988: Novel AI (ALife, GAs, Soft Computing, …).
 1995: Agents everywhere.
 2003: Human-level AI back on the agenda.

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 Successes in AI
• 1975 – Meta-Dendral learning program finds new rules in
spectral chemistry.
• 1978 – Herb Simon wins the Nobel Prize in Economics for his
theory of bounded rationality.
• 1979 - The Stanford Cart, built by Hans Moravec, the first
computer-controlled autonomous vehicle.
• 80s – neural networks with backpropagation algorithm become
popular, evolutionary computation
• 1997 – Deep Blue beats G. Kasparov, first Robo-Cup.
• 2000 – Interactive robots commercially available, Kismet (MIT),
robots used for real applications.
 Related Fields
• Philosophy – knowledge, mind, logic
• Mathematics - formal rules, logic, probability,
algorithms
• Economics – decision making, maximizing the
outcome, game theory
• Neuroscience – understanding how the brain works
• Psychology – How do animals and humans think and
act?
• Cybernetics – control theory
• Linguistics – understanding the natural language
Current status - AI

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Venn Diagram Representation

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 AI Problems: Task Domains of AI
• Mundane Tasks:
– Perception
• Vision
• Speech
– Natural Languages
• Understanding
• Generation
• Translation
– Common sense reasoning
– Robot Control
• Formal Tasks
– Games : chess, checkers, ….
– Mathematics: Geometry, logic, Proving properties of programs
• Expert Tasks:
– Engineering ( Design, Fault finding, Manufacturing planning)
– Scientific Analysis
– Medical Diagnosis
– Financial Analysis

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 AI Technique
• Intelligence requires Knowledge
• Knowledge posesses less desirable properties such as:
– Voluminous
– Hard to characterize accurately
– Constantly changing
– Differs from data that can be used
• AI technique is a method that exploits knowledge that should be
represented in such a way that:
– Knowledge captures generalization
– It can be understood by people who must provide it
– It can be easily modified to correct errors.
– It can be used in variety of situations

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 Tic-Tac-Toe
Game tree (2-player, deterministic)

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 The State of the Art

• Computer beats human in a chess game.

• Computer-human conversation using speech recognition.
• Expert system controls a spacecraft.
• Robot can walk on stairs and hold a cup of water.
• Language translation for webpages.
• Home appliances use fuzzy logic.
• ......

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 Outline of the syllabus

• Knowledge representation
• Prediction
• Classification
• Clustering

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 So What Does AI Do?
• Most AI research has fallen into one of two categories
– Select a specific problem to solve
• study the problem (perhaps how humans solve it)
• come up with the proper representation for any knowledge
needed to solve the problem
• acquire and codify that knowledge
• build a problem solving system
– Select a category of problem or cognitive activity (e.g., learning, natural
language understanding)
• theorize a way to solve the given problem
• build systems based on the model behind your theory as
experiments
• modify as needed
• Both approaches require
– one or more representational forms for the knowledge
– some way to select proper knowledge, that is, search
 What is Search?
• We define the state of the problem being solved as the
values of the active variables
– this will include any partial solutions, previous conclusions, user
answers to questions, etc
• while humans are often
able to make intuitive
leaps, or recall solutions
with little thought, the
computer must search
through various
combinations to find a
solution
• To the right is a search
space for a tic-tac-toe
game
 Search Algorithms and Representations
• Breadth-first • We will study various forms of
• Depth-first representation and uncertainty
handling in the next class
• Best-first (Heuristic Search) period
• A* • Knowledge needs to be
• Hill Climbing represented
• Limiting the number of – Production systems of some form
Plies are very common
• If-then rules
• Minimax • Predicate calculus rules
• Alpha-Beta Pruning • Operators
• Adding Constraints – Other general forms include
semantic networks, frames,
• Genetic Algorithms scripts
• Forward vs Backward – Knowledge groups
Chaining – Models, cases
– Agents
– Ontologies
 Agents
• An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving
its environment through sensors and acting upon that
environment through actuators
• Human agent: eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors;
hands,
• legs, mouth, and other body parts for actuators
• Robotic agent: cameras and infrared range finders for
sensors;
• various motors for actuators
•
•
 Agents and environments

Vacuum-cleaner world
271- Fall 2006
271- Fall 2006
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•Declarative Knowledge – It includes concepts, facts,
and objects and expressed in a declarative sentence.
•Structural Knowledge – It is a basic problem-solving
knowledge that describes the relationship between
concepts and objects.
•Procedural Knowledge – This is responsible for
knowing how to do something and includes rules,
strategies, procedures, etc.
•Meta Knowledge – Meta Knowledge defines
knowledge about other types of Knowledge.
•Heuristic Knowledge – This represents some expert
knowledge in the field or subject.

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 Logic

• Formal Logic
• Informal Logic
• Symbolic Logic
• Mathematical Logic
– Propositional Logic or Boolean Logic
– Predicate Logic

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 Approaches to Knowledge
Representation in AI
• 1. Simple Relational Knowledge

• 2. Inheritable Knowledge

• 3. Inferential Knowledge

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