“Shri Bhagyavanthi Krupa”

ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Course Outcomes
Explain the various basic parameters of antenna and its working in wireless
communication.
Apply the Maxwell’s equation to find the far field pattern of electric dipole
& array antenna.
Design VHF, UHF and microwave antennas, which are used in various
application like mobile, satellite, RADAR, SONAR etc.

Describe the wave propagation through different parts of atmosphere and its
attenuation during propagation.
 Antenna
 An antenna is an electromagnetic radiator or generator, a
transducer, a sensor or a impedance matching device with
extensive application in wireless communication like mobile,
satellite, Radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging), broadcasting
system and in biomedical system (Robotic surgery).
 It is also called as arial.

 Different Definition's of antenna:

1. An antenna may be a piece of conducting material in the form
wire, rod or any other shape with excitation.
2. It is a source or radiator of EM waves.
3. It is transducer.
4. It is impedance matching device .
5. It is coupler between generator/transmission line & free space or
Vice-versa.
EM Spectrum
 Radio Frequency Spectrum/Band
• RF is the lowest portion in the electromagnetic spectrum familiar as a
medium of analogue and modern digital wireless communication
system. It spreads in the range between 3 KHz and 300 GHz. 
Introduction:
 In wireless communication systems, signals/radio waves are radiated in space as an
electromagnetic wave by using a transmitting antenna and a fraction of this radiated
power is intercepted/received by using a receiving antenna.

 Thus, an antenna is a device used for radiating or receiving radio waves. An antenna
can also be thought of as a transitional structure between free space and a guiding
device (such as transmission line or waveguide).

 Usually antennas are metallic structures, but dielectric antennas are also used now a
days. Here we shall restrict our discussion to some very commonly used antenna
structures.

Yagi-Uda antenna
Parabolic reflector
 Antennas can function in air, space, under water or other liquid, and even through solid matter
for limited distances.
 Every antenna has specific characteristics that determine the signal’s range and radiation
pattern or shape.

 Further, that the practical antennas do not generate EM waves uniformly in all direction.
Every antenna preferred for certain directions and no preference for other directions.

 Antenna design therefore focuses on two issues

(1)How to get highest possible radiation efficiency from an antenna
(2)How to design antenna structure to achieve desired spatial distribution of the EM waves
i.e. radiating EM wave in desired direction.

Isotropic Antenna or isotropic radiator

 It is a fictitious radiator and is defined as radiator which radiates uniformly in all directions. It
is also called as isotropic source or Omni-directional radiator or simply uni-pole.

 It is hypothetical lossless antenna, with which the practical radiators are compared.

 Thus it is reference antenna. Sometimes even half wave dipole is also used as reference
antenna, but these days use of isotropic antenna as reference antenna is preferred.
Basic Antenna Parameter:

Antenna system performance depends on following parameters

a. Space Parameters b. Circuit Quantities

1. Radiation Pattern
(Power patter & Field 1. Radiation Resistance
Pattern) 2. Input Impedance
2. Beam Area 3. Antenna Temperature.
3. Radiation Intensity
4. Directivity
5. Gain
6. Antenna Apertures
7. Effective Height
8. Bean Efficiency
9. Radar cross section
10. Polarization
11. Front to Back ratio
12. Directivity &
Resolution
1. Radiation Pattern or Antenna pattern

Radiation pattern is generally most basic parameter because it determines the distribution
of radiated energy in space

Practically the radiated energy from an antenna is not of same field strength in all directions.
Instead it is more in one direction and less or zero in other direction

The energy radiated in particular direction by an antenna is measured in terms of field

strength at a particular distance from the antenna.

Radiation Pattern: It is defined as a graph which shows the variation of actual field
strength/intensity E or Power (P α square of E) of EM field at all points which are at
equal distance from an antenna.

Obviously the graph is 3D and E is function of spherical coordinates θ and ɸ (at constant

distance r).

In order to draw the radiation pattern of an antenna, field strength are measured at every
point which lies on the surface imaginary sphere of fixed radius r.
Two types of Radiation Pattern
1. Field Strength Pattern/Field Pattern
2. Power Pattern

Field Strength Pattern: If the radiation from the antenna is expressed in terms of field strength
E(θ,ɸ), then the radiation pattern is field strength pattern.
Or
It is defined as a graph which shows the variation of actual field strength/intensity E of EM
field at all points which are at equal distance from an antenna.

Power Pattern: If the radiation from antenna is expressed in terms of power per unit area [it is
also called as Poynting vector S(θ,ɸ) or power density] , then resulting pattern is power pattern.
Or
It is defined as a graph which shows the variation of Poynting vector of EM field at all Points
which are at equal distance from an antenna.

Both are related to each other by

Power pattern α Square of field pattern
S(θ,ɸ) α square(E(θ,ɸ))

Normalized /Relative Field pattern: Dividing field components by its maximum value and is
given by E  ,  
E  ,  n 
E  , max
Normalized power pattern: Dividing power density by its maximum value .
S  ,  
P ,  n 
S  ,  max

E 2 E  ,    E  ,  
2 2
where S  ,    
Z0 Z0

In decibels normalized power pattern is given by and shown in fig

P  ,  n dB   10 log P  ,  n

In decibels normalized field pattern is given by

E  ,  n dB   20 log E  ,  n

Note: Normalized field and power pattern are dimensionless.

Normalized can be called as relative.
Zo is intrinsic impedence of free space and equal 376.7 ohm
Radiation Pattern Lobes
Different pattern of radiation pattern are referred as
Lobes. They are classified as

Major Lobe: Corresponds to maximum power .

Minor Lobe: Except major lobe all other lobes are
minor lobes. These lobes normally represents
radiation in undesired direction and they should be
minimized.
Back Lobe : Opposite to main lobe.
Side Lobe : Any other lobes in undesired direction.

Beam Width
The angle through which maximum power is received
or radiated.

FNBW-First Nulls Beam Width:

Beam width between first two nulls.

HPBW-Half Power Beam Width:

Beam width between half power level
obtained for main lode.
2. Beam Area or Beam Solid Angle
Area through which the radiation beam from antenna gets propagated into space/received from
space.
Mathematically, it is given by integral of normalized power pattern over a sphere of elemental
solid angle dΩ.

 2
A    P ( ,  )d
0 0
n
dΩ is solid angle subtended by the elemental area dA and is expressed in steradian

1 steradian  1 sr  1 rad 2
2
 180 
  sq. deg
  
 3282.8064 sq. deg
for sphere, 4 steradian  4  3282.8064
 41253 sq. deg
Note: Beam area of an antenna can be described approximately in terms of the angle subtended
by the half power points of the main lobe in elevation and azimuthal direction. (usually for pencil
beam pattern)
 A  HPBW HPBW

Beam Efficiency: The total beam area consist of the main beam area/beam solid angle and
minor beam area.
The ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area.
M
Beam Efficiency   M 
A
m
Stray factor   s 
A
 m min or lobe area & it follows that
m  M  1
3.Power Density/ Poynting Vector and Radiation intensity: U
The radiation Intensity; The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle
(watts/steradian or W/sq. degree).

Let the power crossing through the differential area dA is S ( ,  )dA

Radiation Intensity U is S ( ,  )dA S ( ,  )r 2 d

U ( ,  )    r 2 S ( ,  )
d d
 U ( ,  ) r 2 S ( ,  ) S ( ,  )
Normalized power pattern   2   Pn ( ,  )
U ( ,  ) max r S ( ,  ) max S ( ,  ) max

Note: Poynting Vector/Power Density S depends on the distance(inversly proportional

to square of distance) & Radiation Intensity U is independent of the distance.

Power Density S:
Power radiated per unit area

S ( ,  )  PowerRadia ted / Area

Power radiated from sphere  S ( ,  )  Area

 S ( ,  )  4r 2
 4. Directivity D and Gain G
• Gain of an antenna is a basic property, which is frequently used as figure of merit.
• Gain is closely associated with Directivity and directivity depends on the radiation pattern of
an antenna.
• The ability of an antenna to concentrate the radiated power in a given direction or conversely
absorb effectively the incident power from that direction is specified by various antenna
terms like Antenna Gain/Gain/Power Gain and Directive Gain/Directivity.
• This parameter indicates how well an antenna concentrates power into a limited solid angle.
Directivity D
• It is defined as the ratio of maximum power density/Radiation Intensity to its average value
over a sphere as observed in far field of an antenna.(directivity from pattern)

S ( ,  ) max U ( ,  ) max (1)

D 
S ( ,  ) ave U ( ,  ) ave
D is the dimension less ratio & >=1

total power radiated

U ( ,  ) ave 
4
2  2 
1 1
4 0  0   U ( ,  ) sin dd
 U ( ,  )d  W/Sr (2)
4 0 0
• In terms of power density

• S ( ,  ) ave  total power radiated / 4r 2 W/Met.Sq.

2  2 
1 1
2   2  
2
 S ( ,  )dA  S ( ,  )r d
4r  0  0 4r  0  0
2 
1
•

4   S ( , ) sin dd
0 0 (3)

• Substituting Eqn. (2) or (3) in Eqn. (1), we get directivity

S ( ,  ) max U ( ,  ) max
D 2  D
1 1
2 

4   S ( ,  ) sin dd
0 0 4   U ( ,  ) sin dd
0  0
4 4
 2   2 
  [S ( ,  ) / S ( ,  ) max ] sin dd
 0  0
  [U ( ,  ) / U ( , ) max ] sin dd
0 0
4 4 4 4
• 2 

A  2 
 (4)
A
  P ( ,  )d
0 0
n
  P ( ,  )d
n
0 0
• Equation (4) gives directivity in terms of beam area i.e. D is the ratio of solid angle of sphere
to the beam area (beam solid angle) of antenna.
• Smaller the beam area, larger the D
Examples:
• For an antenna that radiates over a sphere(Isotropic antenna), the beam area is 4pi Sr, then the
D is
D=4pi/4pi=1
D(dB)=10log(D)=10log1=0 dB
• For a practicalantenna that radiates over only half a sphere, the beam area is 2pi Sr, then the
D is
D=4pi/2pi=2
D(dB)=10log(D)=10log2=3.01 dBi (decibels over isotropic )
• Simple dipole short dipole antenna has beam area 2.67 sr. & D is
D=4pi/2.67=1.5
D(dB)=10log(D)=10log1.5=1.76 dBi
Note: D is estimated such that system under consideration is 100% efficient.
D from HPBW’s
If the HPBW of an antenna are known, it directivity D is

41,253 Sq.Deg
D
HPBW HPBW

If we neglect minor lobes, then the better Approximation is

40,000 Sq.Deg
D
HPBW HPBW
For, example, if the antenna has a HPBW=20 deg in both principal planes, its directivity

40,000
D  100 (20dBi)
20  20
which means that the antenna radiates 100 times the power in the direction main lobes as a,
as compared to isotropic antenna(nondirectional). (dBiDecibels over isotropic).
Gain
• The gain G of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less then the directivity
D due to:
1. Ohmic losses in the antenna
2. Its radome (if it is enclosed).
• In transmitting , these losses involves
Power fed to the antenna, which is not radiated but heats the antenna structure.
A mismatch in feeding the antenna can also reduce the gain.
Thus the gain of the antenna is given by
G=kD
where k is the antenna efficiency factor.
In many well designed antennas, k may be close to unity. In practice, G is always less than D.
Gain can be measured by comparing the maximum power density of Antenna Under Test
(AUT) with a reference antenna of known gain(may short dipole/isotropic point source).
Thus
S ( ,  ) max ( AUT )
Gain  G  G (Re f . Ant.)
S ( ,  ) max (Re f . Ant.)

Directive Gain
• It is defined as the ratio of power density to its average value over a sphere as observed in
far field of an antenna.(directivity from pattern)
S ( ,  ) U ( ,  )
D 
S ( ,  ) ave U ( ,  ) ave

Note: The maximum directive gain is called directivity of antenna.

 Directivity & Resolution
• The resolution of an antenna may be defined as equal to half the beam width
between first nulls (FNBW/2).
• Example: A antenna having FNBW=2 degree, has resolution 1 degree and
accordingly antenna should able to distinguish between the transmitters on the two
satellite in Clarke geostationary orbit separated by 1 degree. Thus, when antenna
beam maximum is aligned with one satellite, the first null coincides with adjacent
satellites.
• Half the beam width between first nulls is approximately equal to HPBW i.e.,
HPBW  FNBW / 2
• The product of FNBW/2 in two principal planes gives beam area
 FNBW   FNBW 
A     
 2   2 
• It follows that the number N of radio transmitter or point sources of radiation
distributed uniformly over a sky which antenna can resolve is given by
4
N
A
• However, even D is given by same equation, hence we may conclude that ideally
the number of point sources an antenna can resolve is numerically equal to the
directivity of antenna i.e., N=D
5. Antenna Apertures/Relation between D & Affective Aperture

• Aperture is the area through which antenna radiate or receive.

• The concept of aperture is understood by considering receiving antenna.
• Suppose that the receiving antenna is a rectangular electromagnetic horn immersed
in the field of a uniform plane wave as shown in above figure.
• Let S be the Poynting vector & Ap is the physical area/aperture of the horn and if
horn extracts all the power from the wave over its entire physical aperture, then the
total power P absorbed from the wave is
E2
P  SAp  Ap
Z
• By equation, the power absorbed by horn antenna is proportional to its aperture or area of the
mouth.
• But field response of horn is NOT uniform across the aperture Ap because E at sidewalls
must be equal to zero. Thus, the effective aperture Ae of the horn is less then the physical
aperture Ap as given by (aperture efficiency)
A
 ap  e
Ap
• Aperture efficiency for horn and parabolic reflector are commonly in the range 0.5 to 0.8 .
• For large dipole or patch arrays with uniform field to the edges of the physical aperture may
attain higher aperture efficiencies approaching 100%.

• Note: Parabolic Reflector & Horn Antennas are Aperture Antenna

 Relation between D and Effective Aperture Ae
• Consider an antenna with an effective aperture Ae,
which radiates all of its power in a conical pattern
of beam area  shown in figure.
A
• Assuming uniform field Ea over the aperture Ae,
power radiated is 2
Ea
P  SAe  Ae (1)
Zo
where Zo is intrinsic impedance of air/vacuum=377ohm
• Assuming a uniform field Er at a distance r, the power radiated is given by
2
E (2)
P  SAe  r r 2  A
Equating equation (1)Zand
o (2)

E A
Er  a e
r
which yields aperture-beam area relation
2
(Aperture-Beam area relation) (3)
  Ae  A
Thus, if Ae is know, we can determine beam area or viva versa.
 4
WKT D
A
Then substituting equation (3) in above equation, we get
4Ae
D ( Directivit y from Aperture )
2
The hypothetical, idealized isotropic antenna, for which D=1, has an effective aperture

D2 2
Ae    0.07962
4 4
All the antennas have an effective aperture equal or greater than this. By reciprocity
theorem, the effective aperture of transmitting and receiving antennas are same.
Three expression for D are
4
D ( Directivit y from pattern )
A
S ( ,  ) max
D ( Directivit y from pattern )
S ( ,  ) ave
4Ae
D ( Directivit y from Aperture )
2
 6. Effective Height

• The effective height h of an antenna is the another parameter related to the

aperture.
• The product of effective height h and incident field E of same polarization
gives induced voltage V.
• Thus V=Eh
• Accordingly, the effective height may be defined as the ratio of induced v/g
V to the incident field E. i.e.,
h=V/E
• Ex: A vertical dipole of length l=0.5 wavelength is immersed in an electric
field E shown in below figure.
• If the current distribution of the dipole is uniform, its effective height is
equal l.
• The actual current distribution is sinusoidal with average value 2/pi=.64 of
maximum, so that effective height h=0.64l.
• If the dipole is used at higher wavelength so that it length l=0.1 wavelength,
the current distribution is triangular and average current .5 the maximum,
hence effective height h=.5 l.
• Another way of defining effective height is to consider the transmitting case
and equate the effective height to the physical height (or length) multiplied
by average(normalized) current.
hp
1 I av
he  
Io 0
I ( z )dz 
Io
hp
• Relation between Effective Aperture and Effective height
• For an antenna of radiation Rr matched to its load, the power delivered to
the load is equal to
V2 he2 E 2
P 
4 Rr 4 Rr
• In terms of effective aperture the same power is given by
Ae E 2
P  SAe 
Zo
• Equating above two equation, we obtain

Rr Ae h 2
e Zo
• he  2 and Ae 
Zo
• Thus effective height and effective aperture are4 Rrelated
r through radiation
resistance and intrinsic impedance.
Front to Back Ratio
It is defined as the ratio of power radiated by an antenna in a given direction
to power radiated by it in opposite direction.
Antenna Bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies over which the antenna parameters such as gain,
FBR, polarization remains constant.
 Circuit Quantities

Radiation Resistance
The ratio of power radiated by a given antenna to the square of the current as
applied at its feed point.
PR
Rr 
I2

Antenna Efficiency k
It represents how much of the input power to antenna is converted into
radiation. It is defined as
Rr
k
Rr  Rl
Where Rl is associated with total power loss.
Antenna Temperature
It is the fictitious temperature at the input of an antenna, which would account for
the noise N at the output. Thus N is the additional noise introduced by the
antenna itself.
Fields from an Oscillating Dipole
• A charge moving with uniform
t 0 velocity along a straight line does
not radiate.
1 • A charge moving back and forth in
t T
8 simple harmonic motion along the
conductor is subjected to
1
acceleration and deceleration and
t T
4 hence radiates.
• For clarity, only a single electric
field line is shown.
3
t T
8

1
t T
2
• An oscillating
dipole with more
electric field
lines at different
instants of time.
• EX: See J D
Kraus
Antenna Field Zones
The field around the antenna may be divided into
two principle regions
1. Near Field or Fresnal Zone
2. Far Field or Fraunhofer Zone
where L is the max dimension of antenna in meters
Near field Far field

It is a region near the It is a region near the

2
antenna (r  2L2
). The antenna (r  2L ). The
radiation is inversly 
radiation is inversly
proportional to square of proportional to distance
distance and is called as and is called as far
near /induction /radiation field/fraunhofer.
field/fresnel.
The radiation is inversly Field components are
proportional to cube of transverse to the radial
distance and is called as direction
electrostatic field.
All the power flow is
directed radially outward
Shape of the radiation
pattern is independent of
distance
 Shape Impedance Consideration
• In many cases, its possible to predict qualitative behavior of antenna from its shape.
• Consider a horn loudspeaker radiating audio waves into the atmosphere in front of
it. It is observed that the audio waves are most effectively transmitted into the space
only when the resistance offered by the air in front of it is minimum/its resistance
matches with air.
• We say that the impedance of the air matches with that offered by the loud speaker.
Only when these two impedances match, the loudspeaker will transmit sound waves
efficiently to air.
• It has been found that horn loudspeakers must be shaped suitably to offer the lowest
possible resistance to air. It is also been experimentally found that the most efficient
horn is the exponential horn which can be constructed by using metal sheet (cu or
al) is formed into gradually exponential shape.
• We can construct similar
horns for radiation of EM
Energy at microwave frequ
-ency.
 d  
D

• At lowest frequency, we use

mostly dipole antennas.
• These antennas can be shaped in
different forms as shown if side
figure and each of these has its
own advantages and
disadvantages.
• In figure (a), the dimensions
increases from inner portion to the
outer portion i,.e a conical shape
is used in this construction
• Figure (b&c) shows sharper bends
at the corners
• Figure (d) is the standard dipole
and has lowest BW.
Common Types of Antennas

Figure 8-1 (p. 389)

Common single-element antennas.

Fundamentals of Electromagnetics With Engineering Applications by Stuart M. Wentworth

Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.