Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A. Inflammatory disorders
(1) glomerulonephritis
(2) nephrotic syndrome
3) Pyelonephritis
B. Voiding dysfunction
C. CKD
D. Renal stone
E. Renal failure
Epidemiology of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
• Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) affects about 26 million people in
the US
• Approximately 19 million adults are in the early stages of the
disease
– On the rise do to increasing prevalence of diabetes and
hypertension
• Total cost of end stage renal disease (ESRD) in US was
approximately $40 billion in 2008 & $42 billion in 2013
• Prevalence is 11-13% of adult population in the US
• Increases risk for all-cause mortality, CV mortality, kidney failure
(ESRD), and other adverse outcomes.
• 6 fold increase in mortality rate with DM + CKD
Pathophysiology
• Repeated injury to kidney
Symptoms
• Hematuria
• Flank pain
• Edema
• Hypertension
• Signs of uremia
• Lethargy and fatigue
• Loss of appetite
• If asymptomatic may have elevated serum
creatinine concentration or an abnormal
urinalysis
Primary Glomerular Diseases
A variety of diseases can affect the glomerular capillaries, including
acute and chronic glomerulonephritis
Acute Glomerulonephritis
Glomerular damage
ESRD
Chronic Glomerulonephritis
Activation of renin-angiotensin
hyperlipedemia system
Sodium retention
Edema
Possible causes:
1. SLE, glomerulonephritis
2. Infections
3. diabetes mellitus
4. drugs/toxins
5. lipid nephrosis (more rare, seen in kids)
lipid deposited in kidney tissue.
Diagnostic Findings of nephrotic syndrome
Needle biopsy of the kidney may be performed for
histologic examination of renal tissue
Characterized by:
1. Proteinuria
(hallmark of nephrotic syndrome) – urinary protein loss of
>3g/day
(2’ increased capillary permeability)
a. Hypoalbuminemia
b. loss of immunoglobulins
c. loss of transferrin
d. loss of vitamin D binding protein
2. Edema 2’
3. Hyperlipidemia
4. Also possible:
• blood coagulation disorders or increased clotting (can
occlusions in lungs and legs)
Complications of nephrotic syndrome
• Infection ”low immune response”
• Thromboembolism” renal vein”
• Pulmonary emboli
• Acute renal failure
• Immunosupprsant medications
• Low salt diet
• Protein in diet around 0.8 gm g/kg/day
• Patients with nephrotic syndrome need instructions towards:
» Dietary regimen
» Referral system
» medications
C. Nutrition Therapy
1. Energy:
4. Sodium:
Pyelonephritis
Definition:
• It is an bacterial infections that involves both the parenchyma and
the pelvis of the kidney, it may affect one or both kidneys.
• It is frequently secondary to ureterovesical reflux
• Inflammatory response
Diabetes
Hypertension Mediated by
Chronic GN vasoactive molecules,
Cystic Disease cytokines and growth
Tubulointerstitial factors, renin
disease angiotensin axis
Risk Factors
• Age of more than 60 years
• Hypertension and Diabetes
– Responsible for 2/3 of cases
• Cardiovascular disease
• Family history of the disease.
• Race and ethnicity
• Highest incidence is for African Americans
• Hispanics have higher incidence rates of ESRD than non-
Hispanics.
CKD Risk Factors*
Modifiable Non-Modifiable
• Diabetes • Family history of kidney
• Hypertension disease, diabetes, or
• History of AKI hypertension
• Frequent NSAID use • Age 60 or older (GFR
declines normally with
age)
• Race/U.S. ethnic minority
status
Modification of Other CVD Risk Factors in CKD
• Smoking cessation
• Exercise
• Weight reduction to optimal targets
• Lipid lowering therapy
– In adults >50 yrs, statin when eGFR ≥ 60 ml/min/1.73m2;
statin or statin/ezetimibe combination when eGFR < 60
ml/min/1.73m2
– In adults < 50 yrs, statin if history of known CAD, MI,
DM, stroke
• Aspirin is indicated for secondary but not primary
prevention
Detect and Manage CKD Complications
• Anemia
– Initiate iron therapy if TSAT ≤ 30% and ferritin ≤ 500 ng/mL (IV iron for
dialysis, Oral for non-dialysis CKD)
– Individualize erythropoiesis stimulating agent (ESA) therapy: Start ESA if
Hb <10 g/dl, and maintain Hb <11.5 g/dl. Ensure adequate Fe stores.
– Appropriate iron supplementation is needed for ESA to be effective
• CKD-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD)
– Treat with D3 as indicated to achieve normal serum levels
– 2000 IU po qd is cheaper and better absorbed than 50,000 IU monthly
dose.
– Limit phosphorus in diet (CKD stage 4/5), with emphasis on decreasing
packaged products - Refer to renal RD
– May need phosphate binders
Detect and Manage CKD Complications
• Metabolic acidosis
o Usually occurs later in CKD
o Serum bicarb >22mEq/L
o Correction of metabolic acidosis may slow CKD progression and improve
patients functional status1,2
• Hyperkalemia
o Reduce dietary potassium
o Stop NSAIDs, COX-2 inhibitors, potassium sparing diuretics (aldactone)
o Stop or reduce beta blockers, ACEi/ARBs
o Avoid salt substitutes that contain potassium
Primary care
• Recognize and test at-risk patients
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
“On” “Off”
NorE Ach
2,3 2,3
Pelvic Nerve
Detrusor
Voluntary
NorE
Hypogastric Nerve 1 Bladder Neck
Pudendal Nerve
Striated Sphincter
Normal Bladder Function:
Bladder Emptying
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic
“Off” “On”
“On”
Ach
NorE 2,3 2,3 Pelvic Nerve
Detrusor
Voluntary
Detrusor Pelvic Nerve
NorE 2,3 2,3 Ach
Hypogastric
HypogastricNerve
1
Nerve NorE
NorE 1 Bladder
BladderNeck
Neck
Pudendal Nerve
Striated Sphincter
Voiding Dysfunction:
Functional Classification
• Classification:
– Failure to Store Bladder
Pelvic Nerve
Bladder
Outlet
– Failure to Empty
• Bladder Bladder Neck
Striated Sphincter
• Outlet
Incontinence:
• Definition: "the complaint of any involuntary loss of
urine".
• Types
• Stress incontinence: Loss of urine with exertion or sneezing or
coughing.
• Urge incontinence: Leakage accompanied by or immediately
preceded by urinary urgency.
• Mixed incontinence: Loss of urine associated with urgency and also
with exertion, effort, sneezing, or coughing.
• Overflow incontinence: Leakage of urine associated with urinary retention.
• Total incontinence: Is the complaint of a continuous leakage.
Other Incontinence Terms: Definitions
• Frequency: voiding too often
• Urgency: sudden compelling desire to pass urine
which is difficult to defer
• Urge incontinence: involuntary loss of urine
associated with or immediately preceded by
urgency
• Nocturia: waking one or more times per night to
void
Incontinence History: Try to Classify the Incontinence
Stress Incontinence
Involuntary loss of urine with coughing or sneezing, or
physical exertion
“Do you leak when you cough, sneeze, laugh, lift, walk, run,
jump?”
Urgency Incontinence
involuntary loss of urine associated with or immediately
preceded by urgency
“Do you get that feeling like you “really” have to pee before
you leak?
Behavioral techniques:
Kegel exercises
– Designed to strengthen pelvic floor muscles
– Initial treatment for stress incontinence
– Also helpful for urge incontinence
Stress Incontinence: When to Refer?
• If incontinence causes decrease in quality of life
• Failed previous SUI treatment
• Failed Kegel exercises
Stress Incontinence: Other Treatment Options
• Pelvic Floor Biofeedback
• Pessary
– Intra-vaginal insert to reduce prolapse and support the
urethra
• Urethral Bulking Agents: (collagen, etc.)
– Minimally invasive
– Less durable than surgery
• Surgery
– Urethral sling – Effective and durable
Stress Incontinence: Surgery Mid-Urethral Sling
• Day surgery
• 20-30 minutes
• Risks:
– Bleeding
– Infection
– Too tight/retention
– Mesh complications
• Off work 2-4 weeks
– No restrictions after 4 weeks
Stress Incontinence Surgery: Mid-Urethral Slings
37%
WET
OAB
63%
DRY
• Treatment
– Lower bladder pressure – Anticholinergics
– Empty bladder – Intermittent self catheterization
– Augment bladder (surgery) if high pressures persist
• Lower motor lesion (sacral or lower):
– Detrusor atony/areflexia
– Treat with Clean Intermittent catheterization
Autonomic Dysreflexia
• Autonomic dysreflexia
– Massive sympathetic release in response to stimulation below
spinal cord lesion
– Hypertension, headaches, bradycardia, flushing above
– THIS IS A POTENTIALLY LIFE THREATENING EVENT
– Treat with alpha-blockers, sublingual nifedipine
Summary
• Urinary incontinence is quite common
• Basic evaluation
– Classify incontinence on history
– Urinalysis, Urine C&S
– Voiding Diary
• Excellent surgical options for stress incontinence but try
Kegel exercises first
• Urge incontinence/OAB try lifestyles measures and anti-
cholinergic treatment
General approach to Urinary Incontinence
Lifestyle Management
– Weight loss
– Extreme fluid intake
– Limit caffinated beverages
– Limit alcohol
– Limit evening fluid intake
– Quit smoking (stress UI)
Nursing Process
• Overall Nursing diagnoses
Urinary elimination, impaired
Tissue perfusion: renal, ineffective
Pain, acute and chronic
Infection, risk for
Fluid volume excess
Sexuality patterns, ineffective
Knowledge, deficient