Chapter 5

Analog
Transmission
» Converting binary data or a low-pass analog signal to band pass analog
signal is traditionally called modulation.

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 5.1 Modulation of Digital Data

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Bit/Baud Comparison

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 Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog modulation

» Modulation of binary data.

» It is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal
based on the information in a digital signal (0s and 1s).
» When digital data travels through the public telephone lines it must be
modulated on an analog signal that has been manipulated to look like
two distinct values corresponding to binary 1 and binary 0.
» Figure 5.1 shows the relationship between the digital information,
the digital to analog modulation hardware and the resultant analog signal.

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 Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog modulation

» The sine wave can be defined by three characteristics,

Amplitude, frequency and phase.
» So any of the three characteristics above can give us a mechanism to
modulating the digital data into analog signal.
» In addition the fourth way is by combining the both amplitude and phase
called Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
» QAM is the most efficient of all and used in modern modems.

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 Note:

Bit rate is the number of bits per

second.
Baud rate is the number of signal
units per second. Baud rate is less
than or equal to the bit rate.

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 Example 1
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000
signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and the
bit rate

Solution
Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)
Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps

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 Example 2
The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries
6 bits, what is the baud rate?

Solution
Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

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 Figure 5.2 Career Signal

» In analog transmission the sending device produces a high-frequency

signal that acts as a basis for the information signal.
» This base signal is called career signal or career frequency.
» The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the career signal
that it expects from the sender.

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 Figure 5.3 ASK

» Amplitude Shift Keying

» The strength of the career signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0.
» Both frequency and phase remains constant.
» Which voltage represents binary 1 or 0 , depends on the system designers.
» A bit duration is the period of time that defines 1 bit.
» Peak amplitude of the signal during each bit duration is constant.

» ASK is highly susceptible to noise, because noise usually effects the

amplitude.
» A poplar ASK is on/off keying (OOK).

» OOK
» In OOK one of the bit values is represented by no voltage. The advantage is
to reduce the amount of energy required to transmit information.

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 Figure 5.3 ASK

» Figure 5.3 gives a conceptual view of ASK below…

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 Figure 5.4 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in ASK

» BANDWIDTH OF A SIGNAL:
» It is the total range of frequencies occupied by that signal.

» When we decompose a ASK modulated signal, we get a spectrum of many

simple frequencies.
» However the most significant ones are those between:
» f -N
c baud/2 and fc+Nbaud/2 (with the career frequency fc at the middle)

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 Figure 5.4 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in ASK

» Bandwidth requirement for ASK are calculated by the formula:

BW= (1+d)x Nbaud

» where
» BW= bandwidth
»N
baud baud rate
» d is the factor that related to the modulation process (with min value of 0)

» It is obvious that minimum bandwidth required for transmission is

equal to the baud rate.

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 Example 3
Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal
transmitting at 2000 bps. The transmission mode is half-
duplex.

Solution
In ASK the baud rate and bit rate are the same. The baud
rate is therefore 2000. An ASK signal requires a
minimum bandwidth equal to its baud rate. Therefore,
the minimum bandwidth is 2000 Hz.

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 Example 4
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate?

Solution
In ASK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth,
which means the baud rate is 5000. But because the baud
rate and the bit rate are also the same for ASK, the bit
rate is 5000 bps.

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 Example 5
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz),
draw the full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find
the carriers and the bandwidths in each direction. Assume
there is no gap between the bands in the two directions.

Solution
For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is
BW = 10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of
each band (see Fig. 5.5).
fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz
fc (backward) = 11000 – 5000/2 = 8500 Hz
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 Figure 5.5 Solution to Example 5

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 FSK

» FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:

» The frequency of the career signal is varied to represents binary 1 or 0.
» The frequency of the signal during each bit duration is constant.
» Both peak amplitude and phase remains constant.

» FSK avoid most of the problems of the noise.

» Because the receiving device is looking for specific frequency changes over
a given number of periods.
» It can ignore voltage spikes.

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 Figure 5.6 FSK

» The Figure 5.6 gives a conceptual view of FSK below:

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 Figure 5.7 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in FSK

» FSK shifts between two career frequencies.

» It is easier to analyze two coexisting frequencies.
» FSK spectrum is a combination of two FSK spectra centered on f c0 and fc1.
» The bandwidth required for FSK transmission is equal to the baud rate of
the signal plus the frequency shift. (difference between the two career freq.)

BW= fc1 – fc0 + Nbaud.

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 Example 6
Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal
transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex
mode, and the carriers are separated by 3000 Hz.

Solution
For FSK
BW = baud rate + fc1  fc0
BW = bit rate + fc1  fc0 = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz

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 PSK

» PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

» The phase of the career is varied to represents binary 1 or 0.
» Both peak amplitude and frequency remains constant.
» e.g. if we starts with a phase of 00 to represents binary 0, then we can
change the phase to 1800 to send binary 1.
» The phase of the signal during each bit duration remains constant.

» The above method is called 2-PSK or binary PSK, because two different
phases are used.

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 Figure 5.8 PSK

» PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

» Figure 5.8 below gives a conceptual view of PSK.

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 Example 7
Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the
bandwidth of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference
between the two carriers is 2000 Hz. Transmission is in
full-duplex mode.

Solution
Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is
allocated for each direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1  fc0
Baud rate = BW  (fc1  fc0 ) = 6000  2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the
bit rate is 4000 bps.
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 Figure 5.9 PSK constellation

» PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

» The above method is called 2-PSK or binary PSK, because two different
phases are used.
» Figure 5.9 below shows the relationship between the phase and bit value.
» constellation or phase state diagram shows same relationship by illustrating
only the phases.

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 Figure 5.10 The 4-PSK method

» PSK is not susceptible to noise degradation that effects ASK or to the

bandwidth limitations of FSK.
» Smaller variations in the signal can be detected reliably by the receiver.
» There for instead of two variations we can use use four variations in phase
and let each phase shift represents two bits, as shown below:

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 Figure 5.11 The 4-PSK characteristics

» 4-PSK or QPSK
» A phase of 00 now represents 00.
» A phase of 900 now represents 01.
» A phase of 1800 now represents 10.
» A phase of 2700 now represents 11.
» The pair of bits represented by each phase is called dibit.
» Data can be sent twice as efficiently using 4-PSK as we can do by 2-PSK.

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 Figure 5.12 The 8-PSK characteristics

» 8-PSK
» This idea can be extended to 8-PSK, using phase shift of 45 0
» With 8 different phases each shift can represents 3 bits.(1 tribit).
» The relationship between number of bits per shift to number of phases is
a power of two.
» e.g. When we have 8 possible phases we can send 3 bits at a time, (2 3=8)
» 8-PSK is three times as efficient as 2-PSK.

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 Figure 5.13 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in PSK

» Minimum bandwidth required for PSK is same as required for ASK

transmission.
» However the maximum bit rate in PSK is potentially much greater than that
of ASK.
» While the maximum baud rate of PSK and ASK are same for a given
bandwidth, PSK bit rates using the same bandwidth can be 2 or more times
greater.

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 Example 8
Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting at
2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode.

Solution
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth,
which means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit
rate is 3 times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps.

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 Example 9
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate?

Solution
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth,
which means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit
rate is 3 times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps.

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 Note:

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK so that a
maximum contrast between each
signal unit (bit, dibit, tribit, and so on)
is achieved.

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 Figure 5.14 The 4-QAM and 8-QAM constellations

» Possible variations of QAM are numerous.

» Theoretically any measurable number of changes in amplitude can be
combined with any measurable number of changes in phase.
» The Figure 5.14 below shows two possible combinations.

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 Figure 5.15 Time domain for an 8-QAM signal

» Time domain plot of 8-QAM.

» Number of amplitude shifts is fewer than number of phase shifts, as
amplitude is more susceptible to noise and requires greater shift
differences.
» The number of phase shifts used by QAM is always larger than the number
of amplitude shifts.

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 Figure 5.16 16-QAM constellations

» Three popular 16-QAM configurations.

» The first example 3 amplitudes-12 phases handles noise best because of
a greater ratio of phase shift to amplitude. (ITU-T Recommendation)
» The second example 4 amplitudes-8 phases is an OSI recommendation.
» The third example we have 2 amplitudes-8 phases.

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 Bandwidth of QAM

» The minimum bandwidth required for QAM is same as required for ASK
and PSK transmission.
QAM has some advantages as PSK over ASK.

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 Figure 5.17 Bit and baud

» Assuming that an FSK signal over voice –grade phone lines can send
1200bps.
» Each frequency shift requires a single bit; so it requires 1200 signals.
» Its baud rate is therefore also 1200 bps.

» Each single variation in an 8-QAM however represents 3 bits.

» So a bit rate of 1200bps, using 8-QAM has a baud rate of 400bps.

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 Figure 5.17 Bit and baud

» A dibit system has a baud rate of one half of bit rate.

» A tribit system has a baud rate of one third of the bit rate.
» A quadbit system has a baud rate of one fourth of the bit rate.

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 Table 5.1 Bit and baud rate comparison

Modulation Units Bits/Baud Baud rate Bit Rate

ASK, FSK, 2-PSK Bit 1 N N

4-PSK, 4-QAM Dibit 2 N 2N

8-PSK, 8-QAM Tribit 3 N 3N

16-QAM Quadbit 4 N 4N
32-QAM Pentabit 5 N 5N
64-QAM Hexabit 6 N 6N
128-QAM Septabit 7 N 7N
256-QAM Octabit 8 N 8N
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 Example 10
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced
points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?

Solution
The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45
degrees apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with
each signal unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud

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 Example 11
Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal.

Solution
A 16-QAM signal has 4 bits per signal unit since
log216 = 4.
Thus,
(1000)(4) = 4000 bps

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 Example 12
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.

Solution
A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since
log2 64 = 6.
Thus,
72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud

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 5.2 Telephone Modems

Modem Standards
» The word MODEM is a composite word that refers to two functional entities.
» A signal MOdulater and a signal DEModulater.

» MODULATER creates band pass analog signal for binary data.

» DEMODULATER recovers the binary data from the modulated signal.

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 Note:

Modem stands for

modulator/demodulator.

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 Figure 5.18 Telephone line bandwidth

» traditional telephone lines can carry frequencies between 300 and 3300Hz
giving them a bandwidth of 3000Hz.
» All this range is used for voice, where a great deal of interference and noise
is accepted without loss of intelligibility.
» But digital signals requires a high degree of accuracy, so for safety edges of
this range are not used for data communication.
» As the signal bandwidth must be smaller than the cable bandwidth, so
effective bandwidth used for data communication of telephone lines is
2400Hz, covering range from 600-3000Hz.

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 Note:

A telephone line has a bandwidth of

almost 2400 Hz for data transmission.

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 Figure 5.19 Modulation/demodulation

» Relationships of a modem to a communication link.

» The computer on the left sends the binary data to the modulator portion of
the modem, and the data is sent as an analog signal on telephone line.
» The modem on the right receives the analog signal,. Demodulates it through
demodulator and delivers the data to the computer.
» This communication can be bi-directional.

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 Figure 5.20 The V.32 constellation and bandwidth

» The v.32 modem uses a combined modulation and encoding technique called
TRELLIS CODED MODULATION.
» Trellis is essentially QAM plus a redundant bit.
» The data stream is divided into 4-bit sections.
» Instead of a quadbit, however, a pentabit (5th bit) is transmitted.
» The value of extra bit is calculated by the values of data bits.
» In QAM system the receiver compares each received signal point to all valid
points in the constellation and selects the closest point as the intended value.
» By adding a redundant bit to each quadbit, trellis coded modulation increses the
amount of information used to identify each bit pattern and thereby reduces the
number of possible matches.

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 Figure 5.20 The V.32 constellation and bandwidth

» The V.32 calls for 32-QAM with a baud rate of 2400.

» Only 4 bits of each pentabit represents data.
» The resulting speed is 4 x 2400 = 9600 bps
» The constellation diagram and bandwidth are show in Figure 5.20 below:

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 Figure 5.21 The V.32bis constellation and bandwidth

» The V.32bis was the of the ITU-T standards to support 14,400bps transmission.
» The V.32bis uses 128-QAM transmission (7 bits/ baud with 1 bit for error control)
at a rate of 2400 baud (2400 x 6 = 14,400 bps).
» An additional enhancement provided by V.32bis is:
» The inclusion of automatic fall-back and fall-forward that enables the modem to
adjust it speeds upwards of downwards depending on the quality of the line or
signal.
» The constellation diagram and bandwidth are shown in Fig 5.21 below:

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 The V.34bis

» The V.34bis modem provides a bit rate of 28,800 with a 960-point constellation
to a bit rate of 33,600 with 1664-point constellation.

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 The V.90

» Traditionally modems has data rate limitation up to 33.6 Kbps (by Shannon Formula).
» V.90 modems has a data rate of 56,000 bps, called 56K modems.

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 Figure 5.22 Traditional modems

» In traditional modems data exchange is between two computers A and B,

through the digital telephone network is shown in Fig 5.22 below:

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 Figure 5.23 56K modems

» Uploading and downloading data from internet is still done with the help of
modems as shown in Fig 5.23 below:

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 5.3 Modulation of Analog Signals

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Phase Modulation (PM)

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 Figure 5.24 Analog-to-analog modulation

» Figure 5.24 below shows the relationship between the analog information,
the analog to analog conversion hardware, and the resulting analog signal.

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 Figure 5.25 Types of analog-to-analog modulation

» The analog to analog modulation can be accomplished in three ways.

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 Figure 5.26 Amplitude modulation

» In AM the career signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the
changing amplitude of the modulating signal.
» The frequency and phase of the career signal remains the same.
» Figure 5.26 below sows this concept.

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 Note:

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal:
BWt = 2 x BWm.

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 Figure 5.27 AM bandwidth

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 Figure 5.28 AM band allocation

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 Example 13
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 KHz.
What is the bandwidth needed if we modulate the signal
using AM? Ignore FCC regulations.

Solution
An AM signal requires twice the bandwidth of the
original signal:
BW = 2 x 4 KHz = 8 KHz

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 Figure 5.29 Frequency modulation

» In FM the frequency of the career signal is modulated to the follow the

changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
» The peak amplitude and phase of the career signal remains the same.
» Figure 5.29 below sows this concept.

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 Note:

The total bandwidth required for FM

can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal:
BWt = 10 x BWm.

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 Figure 5.30 FM bandwidth

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 Note:

The bandwidth of a stereo audio signal

is usually 15 KHz. Therefore, an FM
station needs at least a bandwidth of 150
KHz. The FCC requires the minimum
bandwidth to be at least 200 KHz (0.2
MHz).

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 Figure 5.31 FM band allocation

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 Example 14
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 MHz.
What is the bandwidth needed if we modulate the signal
using FM? Ignore FCC regulations.

Solution
An FM signal requires 10 times the bandwidth of the
original signal:
BW = 10 x 4 MHz = 40 MHz

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 Phase Modulation

» In PM the phase of the career signal is modulated to follow the changing in

the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
» The peak amplitude and frequency of the career signal remain constant.
» The analysis and the phase modulation is same as

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