AMBO UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF MEDICINE AND

HEALTH SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL
LABORATORY SCIENCES
POST GRADUATE PROGRAMME
PUBLIC HEALTH MICROBIOLOGY SEMINAR

PREPARED BY YOSEN ABDISA

June, 2021
Ambo, Ethiopia
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 CONTENTS OF PRESENTATION
 Introduction of Mycotoxins
 Factors favoring fungal proliferation and mycotoxin production

 Occurrence and distribution of mycotoxins

 Importance of mycotoxins
 Major types of mycotoxins
 Control of mycotoxins problems
 Mycotoxin analysis techniques
 Conclusion
 Recommendations
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 Introduction
 Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous
fungi .
 Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium and Claviceps spp. colonize
their host and produce mycotoxins (Alassane-Kpembi et al, 2017) .
 Over 300 mycotoxins have been identified, with approximately 30
being recognized to have adverse health effects on vertebrates upon
ingestion (Alshannaq et al, 2017).
 It has been estimated that 25% of the world’s crops are affected by
moulds or fungal growth. (Butler, 2004),

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 Introduction Cont...
 Some fungal metabolites are used as pharmaceuticals or industrial
chemicals due to their anti-microbial effects (Butler, 2004),
 others can evoke carcinogenic, immune toxic, hepatotoxic or
 other adverse health effects in humans or animals after intake of
contaminated food or feed (Ostry et al., 2018).
 Mycotoxins cause enormous economic losses ranging from loss of
life, decreased production in animals and increased costs of veterinary
and human health care services (Okello et al, 2010) .

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 Factors favoring fungal proliferation and mycotoxin production

 Poor hygienic practices during transportation, improper storage,

processing, high temperature and moisture content and heavy rains
(Bhat and Vasanthi, 2003).

 Physical factors include environmental conditions via

temperature, relative humidity, and insect infestation.
 Chemical factors include the use of fungicides or fertilizers.
 Biological factors depend on the interactions between the
colonizing toxigenic fungi and the substrate (Margherita et al., 2012).

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 Occurrence and distribution of mycotoxins
 Mycotoxins are ubiquitous and accessible in different materials.
 They can occur in cereals, cereal products and foods, feeds,
animal products and soil. (Demissie, 2018).
 They may be distributed in pre-harvest period, post-harvest during
processing, packaging, distribution and storage of food products.
(Marta and Bedaso, 2016).

 Crops and cereals which are stored improperly for a long time
facilitate mold growth and can be subject to mycotoxin
contamination (Ahmad and Jae-Hyuk, 2017)

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 Occurrence and distribution Cont.…

 Barley, maize, teff and wheat are the main source of mycotoxins.
 Deoxynivalenol occurred in barley, wheat and maize with an
overall incidence 48.8% of 84 suspected samples.
 Fumonisins and Zearalenone occurred only in maize sample.

 Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin detected from wheat, maize, teff and

barley. (Ayalew et al., 2006).

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 Occurrence and distribution Cont.…

 Concentrated animal feedstuffs harbor highest level of mycotoxins.

 Noug cake was warranted as the main source of aflatoxin (419 μg/kg)
contaminant among those concentrated animal feeds.
 An animal product like milk is the main source of aflatoxin
contamination for human being. (Gizachew et al., 2016).

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 Importance of mycotoxins

 Mycotoxicoses in human like other toxicological syndromes can be

categorized as acute or chronic.
 Acute toxicity has a rapid onset and an obvious toxic response,
 Chronic toxicity is characterized by low dose exposure over a long
time period leading to cancer and other generally reversible effects
(James, 2005).

 Aflatoxin contributes factor for the disease like Kwashiorkor and

Reye’s syndrome when children suffering it.
 Immunosuppression in children (Turner et al., 2003).

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 Importance of mycotoxins Cont.…
 Aflatoxin B1is the most potent natural carcinogen reported. (Squire RA, 2005).

 In dairy cattle, the transformation of B1 and B2 into hydroxylated

metabolites, aflatoxin M1 and M2
 Which are found in milk and milk products obtained from livestock
that have ingested contaminated feed (Boudra H et al, 2007) .
 Mycotoxins have teratogenic, mutagenic hemorrhagic, hepatotoxic,
nephrotoxic and neurotoxic types of toxicity.
 Damage liver, kidney and brain if left untreated can progressively
lead to death. (Turner P et al, 2007)

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 Importance of mycotoxins Cont.…
 Their toxicity is mainly due to interruption of protein synthesis and
DNA replication, necrosis, lung infection and decreased immunity
 With respect to reproductive health, although it has been hypothesized
that aflatoxins have adverse effects on birth outcomes but so far there
is no critical summary of the literature on the subject (Turner P et al, 2007)

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 Major types of mycotoxins
 Researchers have isolated and characterized more than 300 mycotoxin types.

 The most important and highly toxic mycotoxins include; aflatoxin,

ochratoxin A, trichothecenes, fumonisins B1 and B2, zearalenone,
tremorgenic toxins, and ergot alkaloids (Margherita et al., 2012).

1 Aflatoxins

 Are poisonous carcinogens which interfere with the immune system

 Produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus(Jef et al., 2015)

 Grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains of primarily found

in hot, humid climates, colonizing mostly the aerial parts of plants
(Marin et al., 2013).
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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…
 20 known types of aflatoxins which are mainly classified into
aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2 based on structure,
chromatographic and fluorescent characteristics (Ephrem, 2015).
 AFB1 has higher toxicity and mainly metabolized by liver.
 Aflatoxins have an effect on amino acid metabolism.

 The major human cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes involved in

aflatoxin metabolism are CYP3A4, 3A5, 3A7, and 1A2 (Marin et al., 2013).

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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…
1.1. Hepatocellular Carcinoma

 Causes liver cancer in humans and animal.

 Aflatoxins are now classified as a Group 1 human carcinogen (IARC 1993).
Concomitant exposure to aflatoxin and the HBV is common in
developing countries and greatly increases HCC risk (Wu F. et al. 2013).
Individuals with both exposures have multiplicatively greater risk of
developing HCC than those exposed to aflatoxin alone (Wogan et al. 2012).
 liver cancer, including HCC and cholangiocarcinoma, accounts for
5.7% of all reported cancer cases and is the sixth most common
cancer diagnosed worldwide (Parkin et al.2005).
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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…
1.2. Acute Aflatoxicosis
Numerous cases of acute aflatoxicosis are reported.
 The clinical manifestations of aflatoxicosis were vomiting, abdominal
pain, pulmonary edema, and fatty infiltration and necrosis of the liver.
1.3. Growth Impairment in Children
 Aflatoxin exposure linked with childhood stunting,
 Child’s height more below a WHO growth reference.(Khlangwiset et al. (2011)
 In Iran, two studies demonstrated that higher levels of AFM1 in mothers’
breast milk were associated with smaller infant length and weight at birth.
(Sadeghi et al. 2009, Mahdavi et al. 2010)

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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…

1.4. Aflatoxin and Immunomodulation

 Few studies have examined the link between aflatoxin exposure and
markers of immune system dysfunction in humans.
 In HIV-positive and HIV-negative individuals in Ghana, higher levels
of aflatoxin-albumin adducts were generally associated with lower
levels of CD4+ T regulatory cells and naïve CD4+ T cells, as well as
lower B-cell counts. (Jiang et al. (2008)

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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…
2. Ochratoxins A (OTA)
 Produced by Aspergillus Section Circumdati, Aspergillus Section Nigri,

Penicillium verrucosum, and Penicillium nordicum (EFSA, 2006a).

 It is structurally similar to the amino acid phenylalanine.

 It has an inhibitory effect on a number of enzymes that use
phenylalanine as a substrate, particularly Phe-tRNA synthetase, resulted
in the inhibition of protein synthesis.

 It is a mitochondrial poison, which causes cellular damage, oxidative

burst, lipid peroxidation, and oxidative phosphorylation.

 It increases cell apoptosis (Marin et al., 2013). 18

 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…
 OTA is a potent renal carcinogen in several animal species.

 It cause of Balkan endemic nephropathy, a chronic, wasting kidney

disease associated with a high incidence of urinary tract tumors (Pfohl-
Leszkowicz & Manderville 2007).

3. Fumonisins
 Produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum, F.
dlamini, F. nygamai and F. napiforme. (Antonio et al., 2018)
 12 types of known fumonisin types and the most important ones are
FB1, FB2, and FB3 of which FB1 is most toxic.
 Mostly found in maize grown in warmer areas. (Marin et al., 2013).
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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…
3.1. Esophageal Cancer
 Fumonisin exposure may be a risk factor for EC in humans.

 FB1 may contribute to EC and HCC in the high-risk populations. (Sun et

al. (2007)

3.2. Neural Tube Defects

 Are embryonic defects of the brain and spinal cord resulting from the
failure of the neural tube to close in in utero conditions (Missmer et al. 2004).

4. Deoxynivalenol and other trichothecene mycotoxins

 The genus Fusarium produces a diverse family of mycotoxins

known as trichothecenes. (Pestka 2010b).
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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…
 The most well-known and regulated of the trichothecene mycotoxins
is deoxynivalenol (DON), also known as vomitoxin.
Trichothecenes occur in wheat, maize, barley, rye, oats, and rice.
(Sugita-Konishi & Nakajiima 2010).

 They interfere with protein synthesis, induce phosphokinase-

mediated stress pathways, aberrantly activate pro inflammatory gene
expression, disrupt gastrointestinal function, interfere with growth
hormone action, and cause cell death (Pestka 2010a).
4.1. Alimentary Toxic Aleukia
 Association with the consumption of Fusarium-infected cereals.
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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…

 Symptoms- vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea followed by white

blood cell loss (leukopenia), bleeding from the nose and mouth, bone

marrow depletion, and fever. (JECFA (2002)

4.2. Acute Gastroenteritis

 Food poisoning with nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting as hallmark
symptoms was associated with Fusarium-infested food. (Steinberg et al. 2006).
4.3. Growth Impairment
 Chronic low dose exposure of children to DON will adversely affect
growth. (JECFA 2011a)
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 Major types of mycotoxins Cont.…
4.4. Kashin-Beck Disease
 Is an endemic and chronic degenerative osteoarthritis, with primary
lesions involving the growth plate and subsequent cartilage
deterioration, ultimately causing short stature in adults and lifelong
disability

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 Control of mycotoxins problems
 For the purpose of public health importance and economic
improvement in the country.
 A number of strategies for reduction and control of mycotoxins
1. Prevention of mould or fungus growth in crops and other feedstuffs

 Proper drying and storage of crops are effective tools for reduction of
mould growth and mycotoxin production.
Through drying and proper storage of groundnuts, and it achieved a
60% reduction in mean Aflatoxin contamination levels (Turner et al., 2005).

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 Control of mycotoxins problems Cont.….
2. Decontamination of mycotoxin contaminated feeds/foods
 Physical approaches by sorting and washing of maize grains, were
effective in removal of Aflatoxin and Fumonisin in Benin (Fandohan et al.,
2005

 Chemical approaches by fungicides such as prochloraz,

propiconazole, and tebuconazole for reduction of Fumonisin and
Aflatoxin contamination (Haidukowski et al., 2005)
 Biological approaches by introduction of atoxigenic strains of A.
flavus and A. parasiticus to soil of developing crops resulted in 74.3
to 99.9% reduction in the Aflatoxin contamination of peanuts in USA

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 Control of mycotoxins problems Cont.….
3. Continuous surveillance of mycotoxins in agricultural crops,

animal feedstuffs and human food and awareness creation

 It is a long term intervention strategy
 Education and assistance to ensure that food grains and animal feeds
are harvested, dried and stored properly.
 Performed through government bodies, private organizations, and
national media networks interims of newspapers and magazines
 Preparation of seminar and workshop that are used as avenue and
bridge of information exchange and dissemination between
researchers and peoples. (WHO 2006 and James 2005). 26
 Mycotoxin analysis techniques

 Accomplished by certain steps: sampling, preparation, extraction

followed by a cleanup and detection which is performed by many
instrumental and non-instrumental techniques (Ahmad and Jae-Hyuk, 2017)
Service Method Advantages Disadvantages Cost (current
in April 2003

Mold culture Microbiological Determines Does not determine if $30 to $50; the

and Culturing, presence of molds found to be more specific the

presence can or are identification, the
identification microscopic or mold, but not
producing mycotxins. higher cost
biochemical necessary
May take a long time to
identification toxigenic strain
complete test, so it may
test  
take relatively a long time
 
to obtain results

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 +
Chemical ELISA Rapid, Only detect one $30 to $50
analysis relatively mycotoxin at a time.
inexpensive Proof of mycotoxin
presence usually
additional testing
Thin layer Can detect more Slower than ELISA. $20 to $50; may
chromatography than one kind of Proof of mycotoxin be more if
(TLC) mycotoxin presence usually quantitative
additional testing. May analysis and
not work as well for confirmation
feeds other than grains are required
High Easier to May be more expensive $20 or more,
performance provide than other method of depending upon
liquid quantitative analysis. Proof of setup
chromatography result. May be mycotoxin presence
(HPLC) able to detect usually additional
more than one testing
kind of
mycotoxin
Gas Can identify May be more expensive $50 to $100, or
chromatography mycotoxin than other method of more
/mass without analysis.
spectroscopy additional
(GCMS) testing. May be
able to detect
more than one
kind of
mycotoxin
Sampling and analyzing feed for fungal (mold) toxins (mycotoxins), NebGuide G1515, Michael
P. Carlson, 2003
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 Conclusion

The favorable conditions for mycotoxins production are activated with

poor hygienic conditions at the time of transportation and storage,
high temperature and moisture content and heavy rains.
 Acute mycotoxicoses can cause serious and sometimes fatal diseases.
 The strict control of food quality is mandatory.
Effective management of food safety risks is required, especially
including the use of rapid and sensitive immunological techniques.

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 Recommendations
Since mycotoxins are ubiquitous and inducing numerous economic
and health crisis, appropriate and environmentally friendly prevention

and control strategies shall be given priority.

Develop new technologies, including multiple-toxin analyses, and
improve detection (with specificity) of mycotoxins in prepared foods.
 Assess mycotoxins as virulence factors.

 Research the effect of mycotoxins as immunosuppresses.

Owners or farmers should aware about mycotoxins and its impact and
sources.
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!!!
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