RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

HPHY 202

BY

DR. IBRAHIM MUSAH

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY DEPARTMENT
ROOM 110

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 Course outline
• Review of Gas LawsTransport of Gases
• Oxygen-HB Dissociation curve
• Hypoxia
• Transport of Carbon dioxide
• Control Of Respiration
• Regulation of Respiration
• Respiratory adjustment:
• During Exercise
• High altitude
• Deap sea
• At birth 2
 Gas Laws
• Avogadro’s Hypothesis: Equal numbers of
molecules in the same volumes at the same
temperature will exert the same pressure
• Dalton’s Law: In a gas mixture the pressure
exerted by each individual gas in a space is
independent of the pressures of other gases in
the mixture
• Boyle’s Law:
• Charles’s Law/ Gay-Lussac’s Law
• Ideal Gas Law : PV = nRt
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 Composition of inspired and expired Air
• The proportion of air in the atmosphere differs
significantly from the inspired air, expired air and
alveolar air.

• The total pressure of water vapour at normal body

temperature of 370C is 47mmHg.

• This is the partial pressure of water vapour in the

alveolar air.
• This water vapour simple humidified/dilute other
gases in the inspired air. 4
• This account for diff. in partial pressure of gases in
atmospheric air and that of inspired air

• Alveolar air have a diff composition from atmp air

and inspired air with the ff reason

• 1. alveolar air is only partially replace by

atmospheric air with each breath.

• 2. oxygen is constantly been absorbed by the

alveolar air by blood
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• 3. CO2 is constantly diffusing from the pulmonary
blood to the alveolar

• 4. Dry atmospheric air that enters the respiratory

passage is humidified even before it reaches the
alveolar

• O2 conc. In the alveolar is control by 2 factor

• 1. rate of absorption of oxygen into the blood

• 2. rate of entry of new oxygen into lung/alveolar 6

• During heavy exercise, the amount of O2 in the
alveolar drops inspite of increase in respiratory rate
and debt.

• This is bcos O2 utilization level is higher than the

amount arriving the alveolar.

• This account for the O2 debt that is usually pay after

a heavy exercise

• Only about 350ml of new air is brought to the

alveolar with each normal respiration 7
• This slow replacement of the alveolar air is
important in preventing sudden changes in gaseous
concentration of the blood hence make the
respiratory control mechanism more stable/much
easier
• 2 factor also affect the alveolar partial pressure of
CO2
• 1. rate of ventilation
• 2. rate of formation of CO2 from the blood to the
alveolar

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 Transport of Oxygen
• Blood: Plasma and Red Blood Cells. ... Oxygen is
carried in the blood in two forms:

• 1 Dissolved in plasma and RBC water (about 2% of

the total)

• 2 Reversibly bound to hemoglobin (about 98% of

the total)

• The total amount of oxygen that get dissolve in

plasma is about 900ml/100ml of plasma 9
10
• The protein inside red blood cells that carries
oxygen to cells and carbon dioxide to the lungs is
hemoglobin

• Hemoglobin is made up of four symmetrical

subunits and four heme groups.

• Iron associated with the haem binds oxygen.

• It is the iron in hemoglobin that gives blood its red

color.
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12
• Hb4 + O2 = Hb4O2
• Hb4O2 + O2 = Hb4O4
• Hb4O4 + O2 = Hb4O6
• Hb4O6 + O2 = Hb4O8

• All the process takes fractions of seconds but the

last step takes time to combine with Hb.

• Oxygen utilization coefficient of haemoglobin is

about 2500ml of O2/min/100ml of plasma
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OXYGEN-HAEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE
• The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin can be plotted
as a function of the Partial pressure of oxygen in the
blood (x-axis) versus the relative Hb-oxygen
saturation (y-axis).

• The resulting graph, an oxygen Dissociation curve,

is sigmoidal, or S-shaped .

• As the partial pressure of oxygen increases, the

hemoglobin becomes increasingly saturated with
oxygen.
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15
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 HYPOXIA
• Define as the decrease in or insufficient amont of
Oxygen supply to the tissue or decrease in
Haemoglobin level in the blood

• 4 type of Hypoxia

• Hypoxic hypoxia: result of decrease in O2 in

atmosphere e.g high altitude, underground mining,
respiratory condition like obstruction of the lungs or
legion of the respiratory center
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• Anaemic hypoxia: hypoxia due to low level of
haemoglobin ( fall in RBC count doe to haemolysis
and sickle cell

• Histotoxic hypoxia: oxygen is available but the

tissue can not utilize them due to blockage of
cytochrome oxidase enzymes cause by toxic
substance e.g cyanides poison

• Stagnant hypoxia: due to sluggish blood flow

around the blood vessels
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 TRANSPORT OF CARBODIOXIDE
• Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood from the
tissue to the lungs in three ways

• (i) dissolved in solution

• (ii) buffered with water as carbonic acid
• (iii) bound to proteins, particularly haemoglobin.

• Approximately 75% of carbon dioxide is transport

in the red blood cell and 25% in the plasma.

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20
• CO2 get dissolves about 10 times more than O2 in
plasma bcos solubility coefficient of CO2 is greater
than O2

• Partial pressure of CO2 at the arterial end is about

40mmHg and at the venous end is about 45mmHg

• About 750ml of CO2/100ml of plasma of CO2 is

dissolve in plasma for transportation

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• Some of the carbon dioxide is transported dissolved
in the plasma.

• Some carbon dioxide is transported as

carbaminohemoglobin.

• i.e it is partially attached to the amino end of Hb and

some of the plasma protein which as amino end.

• Hb-NH2 + CO2 = Hb-CooNH2

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• However, most carbon dioxide is transported as
bicarbonate.

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 CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
• Control of respiration is the control of inspiration and
expiration during normal quiet respiratory activity.

• Inspiration is an active process and expiration is a

passive process

• Normal respiratory rate is 12-15 time/minute

• Breathing occurs rhythmically which is generated

within the respiratory centres found in Medulla
oblongata (DRG, VRG), Botzinger complex and Pons
(PRG) 25
26
• Voluntary Control: require conscious effort usually
initiated through the cerebral cortex and by pass the
pyramidal horn cells and down the nerve root of
inspiration and expiration

• Involuntary Control: involves impulses originate

from the PONS and MEDULLARY REGION of the
mid brain due to respiratory nuclei present there
• A. PRG: the nuclei in the pons are called PRG. 2
center are present in the pons

• Pneumotaxic center: in the upper part which

consist of Parabrachialis nucleus which is of 2 type
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• Parabrachialis Medialis nucleus: usually are presented
with expiratory neuron (E neuron)

• Parabrachialis Lateralis nucleus: is an aggregate of

nuclei with principally Inspiratory neurons (I neuron)

• Apneustic center: found in the lower pons, usually only

I neuron are found in their center

• B. DRG: it is found in the upper part of medullar

oblongata within a center with aggregate of nucleus
called nuclus tractus solitarius (NTS) the neurons found
here is mainly I neuron 28
• Botzinger Complex: form slightly above NTS in
connection with DRG, this complex rhythmically
send Expiratory drive to the DRG

• VRG: are found in the lower part of medullar

• Upper part are found within nucleus Ambiguus
(Anteriorly) where I- neurons are found

• Lower part are found within the nucleus

Retroambiguus where the E- neurons are found

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• The 4 mention centers are called respiratory center.
The last 2 DGR and VRG are collectively called
MEDULLARY RYTHMICITY CENTER(MRC)
dorsal and ventral respiratory group.

• Impulse from vagus nerve relay it input to PRG

while glossopharyngeal nerve relay input to DRG

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 REGULATIONS OF RESPIRATION CENTERS
• CHEMICAL REGULATION: usually by chemoreceptor:
the chemoreceptors are
• Peripheral Chemoreceptor: found in carotid sinus and aortic
body, which impulse are relay by the vagus nerve to the
PRG to the respiratory center. More sensitive to change in
PO2,

• Central Chemoreceptor: found in medullar and respond

more to change in PCO2, but not PCO2 per say. Change in
PH can also stimulate central chemoreceptor

• NON CHEMICAL REGULATION: usually by

mechanoreceptor 31
• 1. Lungs Irritant Receptor: found in the upper part of
the respiratory tract (throat, nose, external auditory
meatus) stimulation of stretch receptor along this axis
result in coughing, sneezing

• 2. Lungs Stretch receptor: they are found lower down

the respiratory tract around the bronchioles. They
respond to stretch of the bronchioles which are relay to
DRG via the glossopharyngeal nerve to inhibit act of
inspiration follow by expiration

• Prorioceptors: usually found in the joint, stimulated

usually during movement and exercise 32
• HIGHER CENTER: center above the pons can also
control the respiratory center.
• Impulse from the hypothalamus especially
temperature regulation center.
• Impulse from limbic system usually control emotion
rxn is connected to respiratory center
• Impulse from cerebral cortex and cerebellum are
also relay to respiratory center
• Relationship exist btw phase of inspiration and
cardiac cycle, during inspiration the heart rate
increase and vice versa
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 RESPIRATORY ADJUSTMENT
• DURING EXERCISE
• HIGH ALTITUDE
• DEEP SEA
• BIRTH

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 EXERCISE
• Exercise: typical exercise can be mild, moderate and severe

• During mild to moderate exercise, normal respiratory rate

of 12-15time/min can increase due to psychic stimuli (by
sympathetic stimulation)

• During severe exercise, proprioceptor stimulate the

respiratory center and respiratory rate can increase up to
50 fold

• Amount of air breath in and out can increase up to 2L

(alveolar ventilation)
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• There is an increase in oxygen consumption during
severe exercise to about 3L/min from normal value
of about 250ml/min

• There is a shift of Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation

curve to the right due to increase in body
temperature

• There is a decrease in PH during severe exercise due

to anaerobic glycolysis resulting from oxygen
DEBT
• There is an ancrease in RBC production due to
stimulation of erythropiesis 36
 Respiration at High Altitude

• High altitude is the region of earth located at an

altitude of above 8,000 feet. Characteristic feature
of high altitude is the low barometric pressure

• Partial pressure of gases, particularly oxygen

decreases leading to hypoxia

• Anywhere from 10,000 feet, there is hypoxic

hypoxia which result in lassitude (body weekness),
Dizziness, mental fatigue and vomitting
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• At about 20,000 feet, the atmospheric pressure
drops by half which is severe to life.

• Death may result from cerebral oedema, coma and

pulmonary oedema.

• All these features are collectively called ACUTE

MOUNTAIN SICKNESS

• To avoid these there are two options

• Coming down from the altitude
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• Acclimatization: process where by you gradually
ascend your height over a period of time so that
body now adjust to low PO2

• This fall in PO2 result in hyperventilation stimulated

by peripheral chemoreceptor

• Increase in pulmonary ventilation and diffusion

capacity of O2 to about 3 fold

• Hypoxic hypoxia stimulate erythropoiesis secreted

by renin
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• Sometimes the process of acclimatization fails and
person devp. Chronic Mountain Sickness xtrise by

• Pulmonary hypertension result in physiological

shunt

• Right ventricular hypertrophy which lead to

congestive cardiac failure

• Cyanosis: bluish colouration of the skin

• Finger clubbing 40
 RESPIRATORY ADJUSTMENT IN DEEP SEA
• Deep down the sea, pressure increase for every
10m down by 1 atmospheric pressure

• SINGLE BREATH DIVING: occur when enough O2 is

taking and dive in.
• that can sustain for few minute. Usually
hyperventilation is not allow.

• SNORKEL DIVING: is a tube connected to the mouth

piece and ensuring that the opening end of the tube
is above the sea level 41
• SCUBA DIVING: it mean Self Contained
Underwater Breathing Apparatus. Scuba have gases
which are compress at high pressure.
• There are two way valves, one for O2 inlet and the
other for CO2 outlet
• Danger involves Using this apparatus
• If O2 is deliver at high pressure greater than 3
atmosphere, more of it will be dissolved. Incease
amount of O2 in the solution causes Dizzleness,
Convulsion, and death
• N2 at pressure greater than 4 atmosphere would be
dissolved and result in NITROGEN-NARCOSIS.
Similar to alcoholic intoxication. 42
• When ascending to the surface, N2 bubbles out of the
plasma and causes emboli block some of the blood
vessel supplying the skeletal muscle which can cause
paralysis.

• Blockage of blood vessels to the brain can cause

dizzleness, convulsion and death.

• All this phenomenon is called CAISSON’S DISEASE

(DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS SYNDRONE).

• To overcome this problem, N2 can be substituted for

HELIUM
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 Respiration Adjustment At Birth
• While in uterus babies (foetus does’nt) breath in and
out. They are surrounded by amniotic fluid.

• The placenta of the mother is the respiratory unit.

• Baby stay inside the uterus for a normal pregnancy

(9 month)

• Attached to the placenta is the umbilica cord which

is compress as the baby pass through the cervical
canal. 44
• Contraction of uterus i.e concept of labour is called
(BRAXTON-HICKS CONTRACTION)

• The baby experience HYPOXIA which then

stimulate the chemoreceptor

• The expulsion of the baby also stimulate the

TEMPERATURE RECEPTOR STIMULI.

• This two stimuli send impulse to the respiratory

center
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• The first breath taken in open the alveolar of the
lung because of the present of surfactant which will
prevent the collapse of the lung.

• baby delivered by C.S would cry diff from baby

delivered normally due to the fact that anaesthtic use
can also contribute to stimulation of respiratory
center as it as affect the placenta.

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