Journal of Lesbian Studies

https://doi.org/10.1080/10894160.2022.2122197

The negative effects of internalized homonegativity

on sexual satisfaction: dyadic effects and
gender-based differences in Chile
Joaquín Bahamondesa , Jaime Barrientosb , Mónica Guzmán-Gonzáleza ,
Lusmenia Garrido-Rojasc , Fabiola Gómezd and Ricardo Espinoza-Tapiaa
Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile; bEscuela de Psicología,
a

Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Santiago, Chile; cDepartamento de Psicología, Universidad Católica del
Maule, Talca, Chile; dEscuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica, Santiago, Chile

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Heterosexism is not only expressed through sexual prejudice Internalized
as an external stressor, but also as an internalized rejection homonegativity;
internalized homophobia;
toward one’s own (and others’) sexually diverse identity. That
minority stress; positive
is, lesbian women and gay men themselves internalize negative sexuality; same-sex
societal attitudes toward their sexual orientation and identi- couples
ty—a phenomenon called internalized homonegativity. A
wealth of research shows that internalized homonegativity
negatively affects the health and social adjustment of gay and
lesbian people. However, the literature has documented this
trend from an individual (over a dyadic) perspective, and largely
among gay (over lesbian) samples. To address this oversight,
we analyzed data from 210 gay and lesbian couples in Chile
to examine both actor and partner effects of internalized
homonegativity on their sexual satisfaction. Results from mod-
eration analyses from an actor-partner interdependence model
(APIM) approach show that partners’ internalized homonega-
tivity negatively affects actor sexual satisfaction, a pattern sig-
nificantly moderated by gender; that is, only observed among
lesbian couples. Our results further demonstrated that these
effects hold above and beyond the actor and partner effects
of age and relationship satisfaction, as well as relationship
length. These results are consistent with the broader literature,
which discusses the specific features of internalized homoneg-
ativity in lesbian women, characterized—among other
aspects—by restrictive social demands over their sexuality.
Accordingly, our findings highlight the deleterious relational
consequences of internalized homonegativity and offer a rel-
evant empirical contribution to the understanding of specific
minority stress dynamics among lesbian women.

Over the course of the 21st century, substantial improvements in the rights
and quality of life of sexual minority populations have taken place, advances
that come hand-in-hand with more positive attitudes toward lesbian and

CONTACT Joaquín Bahamondes jbahamondes@ucn.cl Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Católica del

Norte, Antofagasta, Chile.
© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 J. BAHAMONDES ET AL.

gay (LG) individuals. In spite of this significant progress, LGBTQ + popu-

lations continue suffering from myriad forms of discrimination, from subtle
rejection to hate crimes (Herek et  al., 2002). These expressions of sexual
prejudice are an indication that heterosexism remains pervasive worldwide
(Flores, 2019). This is also the case in the Chilean context, where the
present study takes place. Attitudes toward the LG population have improved
substantially, but remain far from the average positive dispositions observed
in WEIRD countries (Western, educated, industrilized, rich and democratic;
Henrich et  al., 2010), as levels of acceptance in Chile have plateaued half-
way between absolute rejection and absolute acceptance, thus reflecting a
lukewarm sentiment rather than widespread levels of acceptance (see
Barrientos & Bahamondes, 2022). This is also indicative of societal con-
tradictions on the topic: while conversion therapy is still prevalent, there
are institutional efforts in place to ban these types of treatments (McGowan,
2020). Likewise, a same-sex marriage law has been recently passed in the
country (Romo, 2021), yet heterosexism remains ubiquitous, from mild
social rejection (Barrientos, 2011, 2012; Barrientos & Cárdenas, 2010) to
hate-crimes (Barrientos, 2015; Barrientos et  al., 2016). Indeed, the latest
large-scale survey of sexual victimization shows that, as of 2020, over 90%
of gay and lesbian people in Chile reported having faced discriminatory
treatment, mostly in public spaces (53.4%) and within their homes (44.7%;
Subsecretaría de Prevención del Delito, 2021).
Because of heterosexism, sexual minorities must endure additional stress.
That is, beyond the general discomfort caused by a given pressure to adapt
when personal and situational resources are challenged (Lazarus & Folkman,
1984, 1987), gay men and lesbian women face minority stress (Meyer, 1995,
2003), which range from distal (i.e., external or objective conditions) to
proximal (i.e., internal or subjective conditions) factors. Specifically, distal
conditions, such as derogatory cultural appraisals of homosexuality, legal
disparities and limited access to social rights affecting sexual minorities,
often lead to proximal stressors, such as expectations of rejection, con-
cealment of sexual identity or internalizations of heterosexist social atti-
tudes. Consistent with this view, Brooks (1981) asserted that minority
stress affects the cognitive structure and social adjustment of non-hetero-
sexual individuals via the internalization of a sexual identity substantially
derogated by heterosexism. This is the most proximal form of minority
stress, namely, internalized homophobia or homonegativity (IH).
The internalization of negative societal attitudes among gay men and
lesbian women refers to directing sexual prejudice inwards. At the same
time, IH often leads to feelings of shame and disconnection from gay or
lesbian identities and communities, such as wishing one were attracted to
the opposite sex, or believing that homosexuality is immoral (Barnes &
Meyer, 2012; Herek et  al., 1998). Although a large body of evidence
 Journal of Lesbian Studies 3

documents these patterns (e.g., see Meyer, 2003; Meyer & Frost, 2013;
Szymanski et  al., 2008), we argue that the Chilean context is particularly
challenging to sexual minorities. In Chile, the progressive transformation
of values and rights during the last three decades has been met by strong
opposition by the conservative wing of society, which disapproved of—and
pushed against—divorce, contraception, voluntary sterilization, sexual edu-
cation, prevention of HIV/AIDS, abortion, acknowledgement of sexual
diversity and same-sex marriage (Dides & Fernández, 2016). Similar to
other former Spanish colonies (e.g., see Alibudbud, 2022), religiosity, moral
and political conservatism, and low educational attainment, continue to
be prevalent features of the socio-cultural makeup, which could (at least
partially) explain why institutional advances coexist with anti-homosexual
sentiments (Barrientos & Bahamondes, 2022). Unlike relatively more hos-
pitable contexts (such as the U.S.), reserch shows that chilean society is
more hostile toward gay and lesbian people, precisely because of the
endorsement of more traditional gender norms (Nierman et  al., 2007).
For these reasons, Chile offers an interesting context for the study of
these processes, as IH takes a substantial toll on mental, as well as physical
health (see Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010). For instance, IH increases the
risk of reporting mental and sexual health problems among gay men (Berg
et al., 2015), and harms psychological wellbeing among LG people (Morandini
et  al., 2015, 2017; Pistella et  al., 2022). Similarly, studies conducted in Chile
demonstrate this is also the case for the effect of IH on symptoms of
depression and anxiety (e.g., Bahamondes, 2016; Gómez et  al., 2022).
Altogether, this is fundamental evidence that heteronormative norms remain
ubiquitous, and that sexual minorities experience additional stressors that
are unique to these populations (Meyer, 1995, 2003; Meyer et  al., 2008).
The detrimental effects of internalized homonegativity are not limited
to mental and physical health, as this proximal form of distress weakens
the quality of social connections that members of sexual minorities main-
tain with significant others. Consistent with this insight, Yee Lo (2022)
posits that heteronormative constraints, such as the pressure to conceal a
non-conforming sexual identity, complicate lesbian relationships, possibly
leading to intimate partner violence. Along these lines, those who report
higher rates of IH are more likely to experience problems with their part-
ners, have shorter romantic relationships, and be less willing to overcome
relationship problems (Gaines et  al., 2005; Meyer & Dean, 1998). Similar
to how general stress negatively affects relationship quality among hetero-
sexual and same-sex couples (Randall & Bodenmann, 2017), IH disrupts
same-sex relationship quality. For instance, IH negatively affects relationship
satisfaction and relationship quality (Mohr & Fassinger, 2006; Otis et  al.,
2006; Sommantico et  al., 2020) among LG individuals, and even increases
the prevalence of more severe outcomes, such as intimate partner violence
4 J. BAHAMONDES ET AL.

(Balsam & Szymanski, 2005; Yee Lo, 2022). A recent study demonstrated
that IH has a negative effect on relationship satisfaction particularly for
older same-sex partners (Frost et  al., 2022). Although dyadic evidence is
relatively scarce compared to that assessing individual effects, some studies
have found that having a partner with higher IH was associated with a
higher rate of relational problems (Feinstein et  al., 2018).
The deleterious effects of IH on psychological and relational wellbeing
are well-documented in the literature, yet the study on its effects on sexual
satisfaction is comparatively more recent. Positive sexual experiences con-
stitute a key area of research, as they are an essential dimension of well-
being (Williams et  al., 2016). What is more, sexual satisfaction encompasses
the ability to negotiate sexual interactions successfully, and comfortably
express sexual preferences, which leads to a fulfilling sexuality and sexual
expression (Williams et  al., 2015), and ultimately fosters mental and phys-
ical health (Braithwaite & Holt-Lunstad, 2017).
From a minority stress perspective (Meyer, 1995, 2003), as previously
mentioned, IH is a proximal stressor that threatens various dimensions of
health among sexual minorities. Accordingly, we argue that internalizing
negative attitudes toward sexually diverse identities will dampen experiences
of positive sexuality. Interestingly, there is mixed evidence regarding the
association between IH and sexual (dis)satisfaction. Whereas some have
found a significant (negative) association between IH and sexual satisfac-
tion in a gay men (Berg et  al., 2015) and LG samples (Calvillo et  al.,
2020), a more recent study reported a non-significant correlation between
these variables (Fleishman et  al., 2020). In a previous study, Frost and
Meyer (2009) had examined the effects of IH on different indicators of
relationship quality (among other variables), including sexual problems.
After analyzing data from a diverse lesbian, gay and bisexual sample in
the United States, they found that, contrary to findings by Fleishman et  al.
(2020), IH increased the probability of reporting sexual problems. Notably,
they also reported that this effect was stronger among women (vs. men).

Minority stress as a gendered issue

Minority stress processes are not homogeneous among gay and lesbian
people. Following Brooks (1981), who emphasized the necesity to address
the intersectional connection of interlocking minoritized identities, lesbian
women may experience additional sources of stress due to both gender
socialization and heterosexism (alse see Bowleg et  al., 2003; Szymanski
et  al., 2008; Yee Lo, 2022). As we mentioned earlier, a previous study
suggests that the deleterious effect of IH on sexual satisfaction is stronger
among women (Frost & Meyer, 2009), which could reflect the “double
 Journal of Lesbian Studies 5

jeopardy” of lesbian identity that intertwines the perils of sexual, as well

as gender, minoritarian statuses (DiPlacido, 1998; McCarn & Fassinger, 1996).
This is in line with previous accounts discussing individuals who face
stigma and discrimination on multiple fronts (Bowleg et  al., 2003; Brooks
et  al., 2009), as well as some specific aspects of the Chilean context. For
instance, several lesbian feminist activists have denounced not only the
institutional inequalities favoring gay men, but within the sexual diversity
movement in Chile, calling it a “homo-patriarchy” because of its gay-cen-
tric agenda and the overrepresentation of male leaders (Espinoza, 2019).
As a matter of fact, many lesbian women perceive a lack of support from
the state (Agrupación Lésbica Rompiendo El Silencio, 2018), despite con-
sistent reports of harassment, rape, mental health problems and substance
abuse in this population (MOVILH., 2019).
Above and beyond these institutional inequalities, cultural preassures
disproportionately oppress sexual minority women. For instance, conservative
religious socialization often mandates Chilean women to take purity and
virginity (explicit or implicit) vows (Larraín, 2001), which leads them to
sexual experiences filled with guilt and remorse. This is evidently more
critical to lesbian women that internalize homonegativity, who report becom-
ing involved in same-sex relationships as something “inevitable,” while trying
to flee their homosexual identity, forcing themselves to like men (Herrera,
2007). The internal derogation of homosexuality might be even more det-
rimental among lesbian women (compared to gay men) in Chile, as they
more often refer to sexual experiences as a fundamental practice that feeds
into their lesbian sexual orientation and identity (Herrera, 2007). Along
these lines, Szymanski et  al. (2008) observed that, unlike gay men, lesbian
women might enact internalized homonegativity by regulating their sexual
behavior as a consequence of traditional gender role socialization.
In Chile, a heterosexist context characterized by the endorsement of
traditional gender norms (Nierman et  al., 2007), lesbian women might
experience individual sexual encounters within same-sex relationships as
a twofold transgression of heteronormative masculine control over women
and restricted (purely reproductive) female sexuality (Alfarache, 2013;
Wittig, 1992), which could supress positive and fulfilling sexual experiences.

Overview of the study

Because IH leads to internal conflict between the rejection of one’s own
sexual orientation and the need for same-sex relations (Frost & Meyer,
2009), we expected negative effects of IH to “spill over” the relationship,
impacting their own experience of relationship quality, but also their part-
ners’. Although this possibility has been studied, the potential deleterious
effects of IH on partner sexual satisfaction are yet to be empirically examined.
6 J. BAHAMONDES ET AL.

To address this oversight, we conducted a study assessing the effects of

both actor and partner’s IH on their sexual satisfaction. Additionally, we
estimated an exploratory moderation analysis, in order to test whether
these effects occur for gay and lesbian couples alike in the Chilean context.
Considering the evidence reviewed, we hypothesized that (1) IH and (actor
and partner) sexual satisfaction would be negatively correlated, and that
(2) these effects would be stronger among lesbian couples. Figure 1 sum-
marizes our predicted model.
These hypotheses were examined controlling for the effects of relation-
ship satisfaction and age. Several studies demonstrate that relationship
satisfaction is significantly correlated with sexual satisfaction (Carvalheira
& Costa, 2015; Fleishman et  al., 2020) and has a potential confounding
effect, because of its association with IH (Lavner, 2017). Likewise, as
people age, minority stress processes reduces relationship quality among
same-sex couples more strongly (Frost et  al., 2022).

Method
Procedure and participants

The sample included couples from urban areas of north, center and south
regions in Chile. Participants were initially contacted through a non-proba-
bilistic convenience, snowball-like sampling procedure via their personal
social networks, with the assistance of LG organizations. To these ends, open
invitations were posted on Facebook and Instagram. Each participant was
required to participate with their partner, and to provide contact information
for three couples that met inclusion criteria. Those who agreed to participate
were debriefed about the research objectives and signed an informed consent
form acknowledging their voluntary and anonymous participation, and finally
completed a web-based questionnaire in the Surveymonkey platform. Research
assistants contacted all participants in person, which ensured that data came

Figure 1.  Hypothesized dyadic model of internalized homonegativity and sexual satisfaction,
moderated by gender. Note: A = Actor, P = Partner.
 Journal of Lesbian Studies 7

from real respondents. Couples were also informed that all data provided
would be kept private and only accessible by the research team for strictly
scientific purposes. Participation in this research was rewarded with a $10,000
pesos (US $10.30 dollars) payment. This study was approved by the
Universidad Católica del Norte ethics board (N° 010/2019).
Inclusion criteria required couples to be in a same-sex relationship for
at least 6 months and have both (adult) partners included in the study.
All participants were either gay or lesbian and cisgender. Couples with
discrepancies in their responses to key variables (e.g., sexual orientation,
relationship length) were excluded from the study after a data screening
process. Our final sample consisted of 210 same-sex couples (420 indi-
viduals) that provided complete responses to our questions of interest, of
which 119 were gay, and 91 lesbian dyads. Overall, respondents were
demographically diverse. For instance, they were adults whose ages ranged
from 18 to 76 (Mage = 32.98, SD = 9.52), and had been in a relationship
for M = 5.16 (SD = 5.43) years on average. Most participants were not
married or in a civil union, and only a small proportion of them had
children. Most of our sample holds a university degree, followed by some
who attended college or technical education without completion, whereas
slightly over 12% of participants completed only secondary school, and
11% hold a postgraduate degree. Table 1 includes demographic information,
as well as descriptives for our study variables by gender.

Measures

Internalized homonegativity
Internalized homonegativity (IH) was assessed using the Revised Internalized
Homophobia Scale (IHP-R; Herek et  al., 2009), which accounts for gen-
der-based nuances between lesbian women (IHP-RL) and gay men
(IHP-RG). This instrument included five items, rated from 1 (“Totally
disagree”) to 5 (“Totally agree”), such as “You have wished not being gay/
lesbian” and “You have tried to stop feeling attracted to men/women.”
This scale is unidimensional, and showed good reliability (α =.73, ω =.75),
similar to previously observed reliability ranging from α =.79 (Huynh
et  al., 2020) to α =.82 (Herek et  al., 2009). Its adapted version to the
Chilean context shows excellent psychometric properties and reliability
(ω = .81; Gómez, 2021; Gómez et  al., 2022).

Sexual satisfaction
The Positive Sexuality Scale (PSS; Casu, 2019) was used to measure sexual
satisfaction. This scale has been validated for its use in the Chilean pop-
ulation (Casu et  al., 2021). Five items comprised this one-dimensional
8 J. BAHAMONDES ET AL.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics by gender.

Gay (n = 238) Lesbian (n = 182)
Variables (Categorical) n % n %
Marital status
 Single 210 88.2 162 89.0
  Civil union 22 9.2 12 6.6
 Married --- --- 2 1.1
 Separated --- --- 2 1.1
 Divorced 6 2.5 4 2.2
Children
 Yes 14 5.9 30 16.5
 No 224 94.1 152 83.5
Educational attainment
 Primary --- --- 6 3.3
 Secondary 32 13.4 22 12.1
 Incomplete college or tech 54 22.7 36 19.8
  Complete tech 40 16.8 26 14.3
  Complete college 86 36.1 72 39.6
  Postgraduate (Ms. or Dr.) 26 10.9 20 11.0
Variables (Continuous) M SD M SD
Age 33.49 9.91 32.32 9.00
Relationship satisfaction 4.44 0.52 4.51 0.50
Relationship length 5.78 6.36 4.36 4.21
Internalized homonegativity 1.40 0.65 1.29 0.57
Sexual satisfaction 6.13 1.35 6.51 0.85
Note: tech = technical school, Ms. = Masters, Dr. = Doctorate.

scale, rated from 1 (“Totally disagree”) to 7 (“Totally agree”). Sample items

are “sex brings fun and joy in my couple relationship” and “sex with my
partner is an exciting experience.” Reliability observed for our sample was
excellent (α =.96, ω =.96).

Relationship satisfaction
Respondents evaluated seven items, rated from 1 (“low”) to 5 (“high”),
from the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS; Hendrick et  al., 1998),
validated for its use in Chile (Rivera et  al., 2011). Items included assertions
such as “How well does your partner meet your needs” and “How much
do you love your partner,” which are grouped within a single factor. This
measure showed good reliability (α =.84, ω =.86).

Key demographics
Demographics included in our analysis were our moderator variable gender
(contrast-coded: −0.5 = “men”; 0.5 = “women”) and our covariates, age
and relationship length (both measured in years).

Results
We hypothesized that internalized homonegativity (IH) would negatively
affect both members’ sexual satisfaction within same-sex couples. To test
this hypothesis, we estimated an actor partner interdependence model
 Journal of Lesbian Studies 9

(APIM), in this case, a regression for indistinguishable dyads that accounted

for interdependence between partners (see Kenny et  al., 2020). We included
gender (i.e., gay or lesbian couples) as a moderator in order to examine
whether the association between IH and sexual satisfaction varied as a
function of gender. To these ends, we tested a two-step model that examined
both actor and partner effects. First, we estimated change in sexual satis-
faction as a function of covariates only (step 1), followed by a model adding
our focal predictors and interaction term (step 2). All analyses were con-
ducted using statistical software Mplus 8.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2017).
Descriptive indicators show that average levels of IH were notably low
(M = 1.35, SD = 0.61), whereas sexual satisfaction (M = 6.33, SD = 1.10) and
average relationship satisfaction (M = 4.46, SD = 0.51) were high. Table 2
displays the bivariate correlation between variables.
Results from the first step of our main model presented in Table 3,
including only covariates, show that age was unassociated with sexual
satisfaction for both actor (B = −0.01, 95% CI = [–0.02, 0.01], p = .502)
and partner (B = −0.01, 95% CI = [–0.02, 0.01], p = .317), whereas actor
relationship satisfaction correlated positively with sexual satisfaction
(B = 0.65***, 95% CI = [0.47, 0.83], p < .001). The effect of partner rela-
tionship satisfaction was non-significant (B = −0.09, 95% CI = [–0.27,
0.09], p = .347). Likewise, relationship length was uncorrelated with sexual
satisfaction (B = −0.01, 95% CI = [–0.02, 0.01], p = .420).
Our second step including our focal predictor, moderator and interaction
term revealed that both actor (B = 0.01, 95% CI = [–0.18, 0.19], p = .967)
and partner internalized homonegativity (B = −0.11, 95% CI = [–0.30, 0.08],
p = .254) were uncorrelated with sexual satisfaction. Similarly, the actor
IH × Gender interaction term did not yield significant results (B = 0.19, 95%
CI = [–0.18, 0.55], p = .235). However, the effect of partner IH on actor
sexual satisfaction was conditional on gender (B = −0.43*, 95% CI = [–0.80,
−0.06], p = .022). Closer inspection of simple slopes displayed in Figure 2
further clarifies that the deleterious effects of partner IH on actor sexual
satisfaction was significant only among lesbian (B = −0.33*, 95% CI = [–0.62,
−0.03], p = .030), as opposed to gay couples (B = 0.11, 95% CI = [–0.12,
0.34], p = .363). Interestingly, point estimates observed in Figure 2 indicate
that actor sexual satisfaction among lesbian women is notably higher than
it is among gay men at low levels of partner IH. This difference, however,
is no longer significant under high levels of internalized homonegativity.

Discussion
The current study investigated the association between internalized homon-
egativity (IH) and sexual satisfaction among lesbian and gay (LG) couples.
Specifically, we hypothesized that IH would negatively affect both actor
10 J. BAHAMONDES ET AL.

Table 2. Bivariate correlations between study variables.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. IH
A
-- .19** -.07 -.05 .04 -.10 -.12 -.04 -.15* -.16*
2. IHP -- -.10 -.15* .01 -.04 -.11 .04 -.13 -.10
3. Gender -- .13 .19** -.07 -.05 .10 .04 -.13
4. SSA -- .08 -.10 -.06 .30*** .13 -.08
5. SSP -- -.07 -.01 .05 .18** -.03
6. AgeA -- .71*** -.08 -.07 .58***
7. Age P
-- .02 .06 .55***
8. RSA -- .48*** .02
9. RSP -- .10
10. RL --
*
p <v05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
IH = Internalized Homonegativity; SS = Sexual satisfaction; RS = Relationship Satisfaction; RL = Relationship Length.
A
Actor, PPartner.

Table 3. Regression model predicting sexual satisfaction.

Step 1 Step 2
B SE β 95% CI p B SE β 95% CI p
Intercept 6.32*** 0.45 -- [ 6.23, 6.41] < .001 6.31*** 0.06 -- [ 6.19, 6.42] < .001
AgeA –0.01 0.01 –.04 [–0.02, 0.01] .502 0.01 0.01 .01 [–0.02, 0.02] .943
Age P
–0.01 0.01 –.06 [–0.02, 0.01] .317 –0.01 0.01 –.05 [–0.02, 0.01] .509
RSA 0.65*** 0.09 .31 [ 0.47, 0.83] < .001 0.61*** 0.12 .26 [ 0.37, 0.85] < .001
RSP –0.09 0.09 –.04 [–0.27, 0.09] .347 –0.12 0.11 –.05 [–0.36, 0.12] .323
RL –0.01 0.01 –.02 [–0.02, 0.01] .420 –0.01 0.01 –.02 [–0.02, 0.10] .600
IH A
0.01 0.09 .00 [–0.18, 0.19] .967
IHP –0.11 0.09 –.06 [–0.30, 0.08] .254
Gender 0.32 0.18 .14 [–0.03, 0.68] .074
IHA×Gender 0.19 0.19 .12 [–0.18, 0.55] .325
IH ×Gender
P
–0.43* 0.19 –.26 [–0.80, −0.06] .022
A
Actor effect, PPartner effect; RS = Relationship Satisfaction; RL = Relationship Length; IH = Internalized
Homonegativity.
*
p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

and partner sexual satisfaction. Additionally, we further expected this

association to be stronger among lesbian couples, because of potential
exposure to greater minority stress due to their twofold minoritarian
identity. To these ends, we conducted an actor-partner interdependence
model (APIM) to examine the main, as well as our interaction effects of
interest. Unexpectedly, we found a non-significant association between
(actor and partner) IH and sexual satisfaction. However, results from our
moderation analyses demonstrate that partner (not actor) IH is significantly
correlated with decreases in actor sexual satisfaction, but only among
lesbian couples.
Our findings resonate with multiple theoretical insights that concur in
the salience of gender role socialization among lesbian women (e.g.,
Alfarache, 2013; Brooks, 1981; Szymanski et  al., 2008; Yee Lo, 2022). For
instance, women are socialized under the assumption that—regardless of
their sexual orientation—their sexual desires are improper, and lesbian
women experience an added social constraint that questions the objects
(i.e., other women) of their desire (McCarn & Fassinger, 1996). Thus,
unlike gay men, women’s experience of internalized homonegativity involves
 Journal of Lesbian Studies 11

Figure 2. Effects of partner internalized homonegativity on actor sexual satisfaction conditional

on couple gender.

greater societal constraints on their romantic relationships (Yee Lo, 2022)

and, as suggested by our results, on female sexuality.
Compared to gay men, lesbian women are more likely to link sexual encoun-
ters with the same sex to their sexual identity, to come out when in a rela-
tionship, and to maintain sexual exclusivity (McCarn & Fassinger, 1996;
Szymanski et  al., 2008). Hence, this deeper relational commitment could cause
lesbian women to feel less sexually satisfied when their significant other doubt
their sexual identity. Consistent with this argument, IH is related with the
endorsement of traditional sex roles (Kahn, 1991), which entails internalizing
the female role of regulator and gatekeeper of sexual activity within heterosexual
relationships, and the incorporation of greater sexual constraints associated to
being a female, which they may also transfer into same-sex relationships.
Conversely, a positive sexuality fosters the ability to openly negotiate
satisfactory sexual interactions via communicating sexual preferences
(Williams et  al., 2016). As Frost and Meyer (2009) noted, experiences
within intimate relationships are a constant reminder of people’s sexual
identities, which could lead to less fulfilling sexual experiences for those
who have a partner who has internalized a negative view of their own
sexual identity, as well as other lesbian women (including partners), thus
inhibiting their ability to establish open interactions and communication
about sexual intimacy. These insights resonate with past observations about
potential nuances in the experience of minority stress processes among
lesbian women, because of their twofold minoritarian status (e.g., see
Brooks et  al., 2009; Brooks, 1981; DiPlacido, 1998).
These findings are unsurprising when situated within the Chilean context.
Since the advent of Chilean society, masculine violence against women has
12 J. BAHAMONDES ET AL.

been a pervasive feature of local machismo (Larraín, 2001). Filled with the
morality of a strong Judaeo-Christian tradition, Chilean culture continues
to punish sexual diversity, especially that of women. In fact, some regions
are becoming increasingly more dangerous for lesbian women, who are often
beaten and sometimes killed because of their sexual identity (Mohan, 2019).
Immersed in a context that derogates their identity to these extremes, added
to restrictive pressures over their sexual behavior, lesbian women internalize
homonegativity intertwined with traditional gender role socialization (Herrera,
2007; Nierman et  al., 2007), affecting their ability to openly express their
sexuality—as indicated by detriments in partner’s sexual satisfaction.
Put differently, our results demonstrate that a positive identity formation
process among lesbian women favors their integration in many domains
of their lives (Kahn, 1991). This is consistent with research highlighting
the protective role of identification in ameliorating the detrimental effects
of minority stress among Lesbian women (Pistella et  al., 2022). Similarly,
our findings resonate with APA prescriptions (American Psychological
Association, 2012) and feminist accounts (Bowleg et  al., 2003; Szymanski
& Chung, 2003a, 2003b) that advocate for the development of an identi-
ty-affirmative context for, and mindset among, sexual minorities; especially
in contexts where these identities are constantly threatened and devalued
(Agrupación Lésbica Rompiendo El Silencio, 2018; Alfarache, 2013;
Espinoza, 2019). This outlook can help lesbian couples to harbor more
positive sexualities by encouraging the negotiation of their sexual experi-
ences more openly with their romantic partners. Along these lines, a
healthy identity-development process is not only relevant for individual
outcomes, but also for the potential effects on significant others.
These findings contribute to the larger body of literature in several
ways. For instance, internalized homonegativity (and minority stress)
research has focused primarily on individual effects, making dyadic research
crucial to clarify the relational aspects of this phenomenon. To these ends,
we are the first to study the dyadic consequences of internalized homon-
egativity on sexual satisfaction among an LG sample. Likewise, multiple
authors have observed that the literature on the effects of internalized
homonegativity was dominated by White gay men samples, failing to
account for cultural and gender diversity within the LG population (Russell
& Bohan, 2006; Szymanski et  al., 2008). Our study contributes to further
inform the literature by providing data-driven insights from a non-WEIRD
dyadic sample, at the same time that it unfolds meaningful gender-based
distinctions in the consequences of internalized homonegativity; clarifying
the boundary conditions that can help explain previous non-significant
findings (e.g., Fleishman et  al., 2020).
In spite of these contributions, our study is not without caveats. For
instance, the extent to which these results are directly generalizable are
 Journal of Lesbian Studies 13

limited to the Chilean context (see Simons et  al., 2017). Also, even though
we employed a sampling technique well-suited for hard-to-reach populations
(see Paz-Bailey et  al., 2013), these types of sampling procedures often lead
to biased (e.g., homophilic) samples. Lastly, our measure of internalized
homonegativity is broader and less specific than other measures developed
specifically to study IH in lesbian women (Szymanski & Chung, 2001). Future
research ought to consider these aspects in order to overcome these issues.
This study sought to assess the effects of IH on sexual satisfaction
within same-sex couples. Notably, our main findings highlight the negative
impact that IH has on the sexual satisfaction of the partner, and the key
moderator role of gender. Looking ahead, researchers would do well to
consider important factors that could further inform these processes. For
instance, stronger ties with the LG community protect gay men and lesbian
women against the deleterious effects of internalized homonegativity (Frost
& Meyer, 2009; Gómez et  al., 2022). Accordingly, future research should
examine whether identity-affirming social connections act as a protecting
factor within couples. In this sense, our findings add to a longer thread
of evidence that can substantially contribute to improving the mental
health of sexual minority, while taking into account their unique experiences.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This research was funded by the National Fund for Science and Technology of Chile
(Fondo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología), Proyecto FONDECYT Regular #1190240,
awarded to the third author.

Notes on contributors
Joaquín Bahamondes is an assistant professor in the School of Psychology at the
Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile, who focuses on how social status, experiences of
discrimination and ideology shape people’s well-being and perceptions of injustice.
Jaime Barrientos is a full professor in the school of Psychology at the Universidad Alberto
Hurtado who focuses on gender and sexuality issues, mental health and quality of life,
with an emphasis on sexual minority wellbeing.
Mónica Guzmán-González is a full professor in the School of Psychology at the Universidad
Católica del Norte, and focuses on adult attachment and relationship quality in romantic
relationships.
Lusmenia Garrido-Rojas is an associate professor in the School of Psychology at the
Universidad Católica del Maule, focusing on adult attachment, emotional regulation and
depression.
14 J. BAHAMONDES ET AL.

Fabiola Gómez is a postdoctoral research fellow in the School of Psychology at the

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, focusing on intergroup contact, sexual prejudice
and sexual minority mental health.
Ricardo Espinoza-Tapia is an associate professor in the school of Psychology at the
Universidad Católica del Norte, focusing on critical studies of childhood and youth, sexual
and gender diversity issues, gender violence and masculinities.

ORCID
Joaquín Bahamondes http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3777-8233
Jaime Barrientos http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8497-3552
Mónica Guzmán-González http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3461-0451
Lusmenia Garrido-Rojas http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4914-0915
Fabiola Gómez http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8390-9476
Ricardo Espinoza-Tapia http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5743-0843

Data availability statement

The data used in the paper are part of a broader project with public funding. For privacy
and anonymity concerns, the full data are only available to the research team. A deiden-
tified dataset containing the variables analyzed in this article is available upon request
from Mónica Guzmán at moguzman@ucn.cl, or the first author of this manuscript, for
scientific purposes only.

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