Blood

• Specialized body fluid that supplies essential substances to body such as sugars,
oxygen & hormones.

• Removes waste from cells of body.

• It is a combination of plasma & cells, circulate through entire body.

• Approx. 8% of an adult’s body weight is made up of blood

• Approx. vol. of blood 4-5 L (female), 5-6 L (male) mainly dependent on body size
Blood
• Mean temperature is 38 C

• pH 7.35 - 7.45 slightly basic

• Whole blood about 4.5-5.5 times as viscous as water, indicating more resistant to flow than
water.

• Viscosity important if blood flows too easily or with too much resistance, it can strain heart &
lead to severe cardiovascular problems.

• Blood in arteries brighter red than blood in veins because of higher levels of oxygen found in
arteries.
Blood
• An artificial substitute for human blood has not been found.

• Main functions: transport, protection & regulation.

• Plasma makes up 55 % of blood content.

• 45 % RBCs, WBCs & platelets, vital role

• Blood groups categorized on presence of Ab & Ag in cell.

• Receiving an incompatible blood donation leads to fatal complications.

Plasma:
•  This constitutes approximately 55 % of blood fluid in humans.
•
• Plasma is 92 % water

• Remaining 8 % is a mixture of proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes,

hormones, gases, mineral, salts, fats & vitamins

• Plasma protein most abundant in plasma & play a role in clotting,

defense & transport.
Plasma
• Macrophages in liver, gut, spleen, lungs & lymphatic tissue can break
down plasma proteins so as to release their amino acids.

• Act as carriers for other molecules. Small molecules bind to specific

plasma proteins & are transported from organs that absorb these
proteins to other tissues for utilization.
Plasma
• Proteins help to keep blood slightly basic at a stable pH by binding
excess H+ ions.

• It govern distribution of water between blood & tissue fluid by

producing colloid osmotic pressure

• Three major categories of plasma proteins

Albumins
• Smallest & most abundant plasma proteins.

• Dec. plasma albumin conc. can result in a loss of fluid from blood &
movement of fluid in interstitial space (space within tissue), e.g., in
nutritional, liver & kidney disease.

• Albumin dissolve substance in plasma by binding to them, hence

playing an important role in plasma transport of substances such as
drugs, hormones & fatty acids.
Globulins
• Three classes from smallest to largest based on molecular weight as
alpha, beta & gamma globulins.

• High density lipoprotein (HDL)/ alpha-1 globulin

• Role in lipid transport carrying fats to cells for energy, metabolism,

membrane reconstruction & hormone function.

• Prevent cholesterol from invading & settling in walls of arteries.

Globulins
• Low density lipoproteins (LDL)/ beta-1 globulin

• It carries cholesterol & fats to tissues for synthesis of steroid

hormones & cell membranes, but favors deposition of cholesterol in
arterial walls, play a role in disease of blood vessels & heart

• Important role in regulation of cholesterol & have a large impact on

cardiovascular disease
• Gamma globulins: produced by lymphocytes & plasma cells of
immune system as an immune response to Ag known as
immunoglobulins (Ig)
•
Fibrinogen, which is a soluble precursor of a sticky protein called
fibrin, which forms framework of blood clot. Fibrin plays a key role
in coagulation of blood
Plasma
• Amino acids formed from break down of tissue proteins or from digestion of
digested proteins.
•
Nitrogenous waste toxic end products of break down of substances in body,
cleared from bloodstream & are excreted by kidneys at a rate that balances
their production.
•
Nutrients absorbed by digestive tract are transported in blood plasma. e.g.,
glucose, amino acids, fats, cholesterol, phospholipids, vitamins & minerals.
• Gases oxygen & carbon dioxide are transported by plasma. contains a
substantial amount of dissolved nitrogen.

• Electrolytes most abundant of these are sodium ions, which account

for blood’s osmolarity than any other solute.
Red blood cells (RBCs), or erythrocytes:

• Slightly indented, flattened disks & transport oxygen to and from the lungs.

• Hb. is a protein, have iron & retains oxygen until its destination.

• Life span of an RBC is 4 months & replaces regularly

• Produces around 2 million blood cells every second.

• Expected No. of RBCs in a single drop or microliter of blood is 4.5 to 6.2 million
in men & 4.0 to 5.2 million in women.
White blood cells, or leukocytes:
• Less than 1 %  of blood content

• Vital defenses against disease & infection.

• No. of WBCs 3,700 to 10,5006/microL

• Higher & lower levels of white blood cells indicate disease

White blood cells

• Also known as leukocytes.

• Two types granulocytes & agranulocytes

• Granulocytes have cytoplasmic organelles, appears as colored granules in light

microscope

• Granulocytes consist of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.

• Agranulocytes have no granules. They consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.

Granulocytes: Neutrophils

• Fine cytoplasmic granules present

• Polymorphonuclear (PMN): Vary in nuclear shapes. Destruction of

bacteria & release of chemicals that kill or inhibit growth of bacteria

• Granules 2 types, primary/azurophilic granules: (lysosomes)

• Microbiocidal elements: Myeloperoxidase, lysozyme, defensins, bacterial
permeability inducing protein
• Enzymes acid hydrolases, neutral proteases, elastases, estrases
• Secondary/specific granules
• Microbiocidal elements: lactoferrin, lysozyme, cathelicidins,
• Enzymes: Collagenase, apolactoferrin, plasminogen activators
Granulocytes
• Eosinophils: Large granules & prominent nucleus divided into 2lobes.
They function in destruction of allergens & inflammatory chemicals &
release enzymes that disable parasites.

• Basophils: pale nucleus hidden by granules. They secrete histamine

which increases tissue blood flow via dilating the blood vessels, and
also secrete heparin which is an anticoagulant that promotes mobility
of other WBCs by preventing clotting.
Agranulocytes: Lymphocytes

• Classified as small, medium or large. Medium and large lymphocytes

present in fibrous CT and only occasionally in circulation bloodstream.

• Destroy cancer cells, cells infected by viruses & foreign invading cells.

• Present antigens to activate other cells of immune system. Coordinate

actions of other immune cells, secrete antibodies & serve in immune
memory.
Monocytes
• Largest of formed elements. Cytoplasm tends to be abundant &
relatively clear.

• Function in differentiating into macrophages, which are large

phagocytic cells & digest pathogens, dead neutrophils, debris of dead
cells.

• Like lymphocytes, present antigens to activate other immune cells.

Platelets, or thrombocytes
• Small fragments of bone marrow cells not classified as cells
• No. 150,000 and 400,000/microliter of blood.
• Functions of Platelets in maintaining haemostatic mechanisms
• Secrete vasoconstrictors which constrict blood vessels, causing
vascular spasms in broken blood vessels
• Form temporary platelet plugs to stop bleeding
• Secrete procoagulants  (clotting factors) to promote blood clotting
• Dissolve blood clots when they are no longer needed
• Other functions:
• Digest & destroy bacteria
• Secrete chemicals that attract neutrophils & monocytes to sites of
inflammation
• Secrete growth factors to maintain linings of blood vessels