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How many particles?
Scientists often need to know how many particles of a
substance they are dealing with.

Unfortunately, atoms and molecules

are tiny and it is impossible to count …thirty-four
them directly. million and
one…
Instead of counting,
scientists use the
relative masses of
different atoms and
molecules to measure
how many are present
in a given sample.

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How many particles?
For example:
One carbon The quantity of
atom has a atoms in 24 g of pure
relative atomic graphite can be
mass of 12. calculated as 24 = 2
12
One The quantity of atoms
magnesium in 24 g of pure
atom has a magnesium can be
relative atomic calculated as 24 = 1
mass of 24. 24
So, 24 g of carbon contains twice as many atoms as 24 g of
magnesium, because magnesium atoms are twice as heavy.
The unit for these results is called a mole.

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What are moles?
The term mole is used to describe how
many atoms or molecules of a substance
are present in a sample.
One mole of a substance is equal to its
relative atomic mass, or relative formula
mass, in grams.
relative atomic mass

For example, the relative atomic mass

of carbon is 12, so one mole of
carbon atoms weighs 12 g.

24 g of pure graphite therefore

contains 2 moles of carbon atoms.

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How many moles?

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How much is in a mole?
Scientists have calculated that
one mole of any substance
contains 602,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000 (6.02 × 1023)
particles.
One mole of carbon weighs 12 g, so 12 g of carbon
contains 6.02 × 1023 carbon atoms.

One mole of sodium weighs 23 g, so 23 g of sodium

contains 6.02 × 1023 carbon atoms.

One mole of water weighs 18 g, so 18 g of water contains

6.02 × 1023 water molecules.
How many carbon atoms are in 6 g of carbon? 3.01 × 1023

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Avogadro’s number
The number of particles in one mole is called
Avogadro’s number.

It is named after Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian scientist

working in the early 19th century.
mantle
6.02 × 1023 really is a crust
staggeringly large
number of particles.
marbles
If you collected 6.02 × 1023
marbles and spread them
over the surface of the Earth,
they would form a layer of
marbles 50 miles thick!

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Calculating moles
The number of moles in a sample is calculated using
this equation:

number of moles = mass of substance

molar mass

Remember:
 mass of substance is measured in grams.
 some elements exist as molecules (for example, O2).
You will need to use the molecular rather than atomic
mass for these.
 for compounds, the molar mass is the sum of the
relative atomic masses of all the atoms in the formula.
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Calculating molar mass

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Calculating moles: questions

number of moles = mass of substance

molar mass

1. How many moles of iron are in 28 g of pure iron?

Number of moles = 28 = 0.5 moles of iron

56

2. How many moles of CO2 are in 11 g of carbon dioxide?

Relative molecular mass = 12 + 16 + 16 = 44

Number of moles = 11 = 0.25 moles of CO2

44

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Using moles in calculations
Moles are very useful when reacting substances together.
They provide us with a quick way of calculating how many
particles of each substance are present.
Chemists use moles to calculate:
 how much of each
reactant they will need
 how much of a substance
they are likely to make in
the end.

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Using moles: example 1
If you reacted 56 g of iron with excess copper sulfate
solution, what mass of copper would you expect to make?
Step 1: Write a balanced equation for the reaction:
Fe + CuSO4  Cu + FeSO4
Step 2: Turn the mass of iron into moles of iron:
mass 56
moles = = = 1 mole of iron
molar mass 56
Step 3: Use the balanced equation to work out
how many moles of copper you should make:
1 mole of Fe makes 1 mole of Cu
Step 4: Turn moles of copper into mass of copper:
mass = moles × RAM = 1 × 63.5 = 63.5 g of Cu
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Using moles: example 2
What mass of iron oxide would you need to react with
excess aluminium to make 1120 g of iron?
Step 1: Write a balanced equation for the reaction:
Fe2O3 + 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Fe
Step 2: Turn mass of iron into moles of iron:
mass 1,120
moles = = = 20 moles of iron
RAM 56
Step 3: Use the balanced equation to work out how
many moles of iron oxide you would need:
1 mole of iron oxide makes 2 moles of iron, so 10 moles
of iron oxide are needed to make 20 moles of iron.
Step 4: Turn moles of iron oxide into mass of iron oxide:
mass = moles × RAM = 10 × 160 = 1,600 g of Fe2O3
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Using moles in calculations

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Amedeo Avogadro

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Avogadro’s law
Avogadro’s law states that:
Equal volumes of gases, at the same
temperature and pressure, contain the
same number of molecules.

This means that one mole of any gas at a given temperature

and pressure will always have the same volume.

At room temperature and pressure

(RTP), one mole of any gas has a
volume of 24 dm3 (24 litres).

What would happen to the volume of a mole of gas if you:

 increased the temperature?
 increased the pressure?
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Gases and moles

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Gases and moles

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Gases and moles

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Gas calculations: example 1
Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to make water vapour.
If 24 dm3 of hydrogen gas is burned with excess oxygen,
what volume of water vapour is produced?
Step 1: Write a balanced equation for the reaction:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O (g)
Step 2: Turn volume of hydrogen into moles of hydrogen:
moles of H2 = volume = 24 = 1 mole of H 2
24 24
Step 3: Use the balanced equation to work out how many
moles of water vapour you should make:
1 mole of hydrogen makes 1 mole of water vapour
Step 4: Turn moles of water into volume of water vapour:
volume = moles × 24 = 1 × 24 = 24 dm3 of
water vapour
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Gas calculations: example 2
Nitrogen and hydrogen react together to make ammonia.
What is the maximum volume of ammonia that can be
made from 2,400 cm3 of nitrogen gas?

Step 1: Write a balanced equation for the reaction:

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)  2NH3 (g)

Step 2: Turn volume of nitrogen into moles of nitrogen:

moles of N2 = volume
24 NOTE: To
convert cm3
= 2.4 to dm3, divide
24 by 1,000.

= 0.1 moles of N2
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Gas calculations: example 2 continued
Step 3: Use the balanced equation to work out how many
moles of ammonia you can make:

1 mole of N2 makes 2 moles of NH3, so

0.1 moles of N2 makes 0.2 moles of NH3.

Step 4: Turn moles of ammonia into volume of ammonia:

volume = moles × 24

= 0.2 × 24

= 4.8 dm3 (4,800 cm3) of ammonia

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Gas calculations

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Using gases to follow reactions
Many chemical reactions produce gases.
Scientists can measure how much gas is produced
and use it to follow the progress of a reaction.
The volume of gas produced can also be converted
into moles and used to determine the amount of
reactants present at the start of the reaction.
Which gas is produced by each of
these reactions?
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid hydrogen
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid carbon dioxide
Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide oxygen

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Measuring gases in reactions
One way of measuring how much gas is produced in a reaction
is to use an upturned measuring cylinder filled with water.

As the gas bubbles into the measuring

cylinder, it displaces the water.

This technique works well

for gases which are less
dense than air and not
very soluble in water.

What would be the

problem with using this
method for a gas which
is very soluble in water?

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Measuring gases in reactions
Another method of collecting a gas is to use a gas syringe.
This technique works well for all gases.

What are the advantages

and disadvantages of
using a gas syringe rather
than a measuring cylinder
to collect the gas?

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Measuring gases in reactions
One other method of measuring how much gas is produced
in a reaction is to measure the mass of the reaction mixture.

What will happen to the

reading on the balance?

Why is cotton wool placed

in the top of the flask?

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Limiting reactants
The amount of gas produced in a reaction will depend on
the limiting reactant. This is the reactant that runs out first,
bringing the reaction to an end.
time (s) volume H2 (cm3)
The other reactant(s) are said to be
0 0
“in excess”. This means that there 150
30
will be some left after the reaction. 60 300
This table shows hydrogen gas 90 450
production during a reaction 120 600
between a small amount of 150 700
180 780
magnesium and excess dilute
210 850
hydrochloric acid.
240 895
After how many seconds was all 270 910
the magnesium used up? 300 910

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Reaction graphs

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Following reactions using gases

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Empirical and molecular formulae
The molecular formula of a compound
tells you how many of each type of atom
are present in one molecule.
The molecular formula of ethane is C2H6.
The empirical formula of a compound
gives you the simplest whole number ratio Ethane: C2H6
of the types of atoms in one molecule.
The empirical formula of ethane is CH3.
Sometimes the empirical and
the molecular formulae of a
compound are the same, like
for water, H2O.
Water: H2O
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Empirical and molecular formulae

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Why are empirical formulae useful?
Chemists sometimes make
compounds whose identity they are
unsure of. Finding the empirical
formula of an unknown compound is
an important step in identifying it.

The empirical formula can often be

determined by studying the reactions of
the unknown compound.

For example, an unknown hydrocarbon can be burned in

oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water vapour.

Chemists can measure the volumes of the gases produced by

the reaction and use them to work out the empirical formula.

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 How are empirical formulae found?

oxygen in oxygen out

unknown
compound
potassium
calcium
hydroxide
chloride
solution
The unknown compound is heated in a stream of pure, dry
oxygen, reacting to form steam and CO2 gas.
The steam is absorbed by a known mass of calcium chloride.
The CO2 travels on and reacts with the known mass of
potassium hydroxide solution.
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How are empirical formulae found?
The change in mass of the calcium chloride and the
potassium hydroxide can be used to calculate the relative
masses of carbon and hydrogen in the original compound.
For example:
If the calcium chloride increased in mass by 27 grams and
the potassium hydroxide solution increased by 66 grams…
27 g of H2O was made. H2O = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18.
There are 2 g of hydrogen in every 18 g of water.
2 × 27 = 3 g of hydrogen were produced.
18
66 g of CO2 was made. CO2 = 12 + 16 + 16 = 44.
There are 12 g of carbon in every 44 g of carbon dioxide.
12
× 66 = 18 g of carbon were produced.
44
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Empirical formulae from masses

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Calculating from masses or percentages

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Glossary

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Anagrams

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Multiple-choice quiz

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