DIAGNOSIS

AND MANAGEMENT
OF
PROBLEMATIC SOILS
(SOURCE: FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL SCIENCE, 2016 KALYANI PUBLISHERS
LUDHIANA PG. NO. 77-100 & WWW.CSSRI.ORG)
PROBLEMATIC SOILS:

The soils in which desired yield can not be

achieved with normal farming practices.

Types of problematic soils :

1. Saline soils
2. Sodic ( Alkaline soils )
3. Saline-Sodic soils
4. Acid soils
5. Calcareous soils
Characterization of salt affected soils
Characteristics Saline soil Non-saline alkali soil Saline-alkali soil
Exchange Na on clay
Exchangeable sodium
Content in soil Excess soluble salts as well as soluble
on the soil complex
salts.
ECe (dS/m) >4 <4 >4
Soil pH Less than 8.5 8.5-10 More than 8.5
ESP Less than 15 More than 15 More than 15
Sodium adsorption
Less than 13 More than 13 More than 13
ratio (SAR)
Total soluble salt
More than 0.1 % Less than 0.1 % More than 0.1 %
content
Sulphate
(SO4 ), chloride (Cl-)
2- Sodium carbonate
Dominant salts (Na2CO3) -
and nitrates (NO3-)
Very low due to the
Organic matter Slightly less than presence of sodium Variable
content normal soils carbonate (Na2CO3)
Colour White Black -
Deflocculated Flocculated or
Flocculated
condition, permeability deflocculated
Physical condition of condition, permeable
to water and air is depending upon the
the soil to water and air. Soil
poor. Very poor soil presence of sodium
structure optimum.
structure. salts and Na-clay
White alkali Black alkali
Other name Usar
(Solonchak) (Solonetz)
 Distribution:
It has been estimated that about 6.74
million hectares of land in India are salt
affected i.e. saline and alkaline soils. State wise
distribution of salt affected soils in India is
given in table 1.
 Distribu
tion: Saline Coastal
soils Alkali soils saline soil Total Total
Sr.
No. State (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) ( m ha)
1 Andhra Pradesh 0 196609 77598 274207 0.27
2 A & N islands 0 0 77000 77000 0.08
3 Bihar 47301 105852 0 153153 0.15
4 Gujarat 1218255 541430 462315 2222000 2.22
5 Haryana 49157 183399 0 232556 0.23
6 J & K* 0 17500 0 17500 0.02
7 Karnataka 1307 148136 586 150029 0.15
8 Kerala 0 0 20000 20000 0.02
9 Maharashtra 177093 422670 6996 606759 0.61
10 Madhya Pradesh 0 139720 0 139720 0.14
11 Orissa 0 0 147138 147138 0.15
12 Punjab 0 151717 0 151717 0.15
13 Rajasthan 195571 179371 0 374942 0.37
14 Tamil Nadu 0 354784 13231 368015 0.37
15 Uttar Pradesh 21989 1346971 0 1368960 1.37
16 West Bengal 0 0 441272 441272 0.44
  Total 1710673 3788159 1246136 6744968 6.74
Saline (Solonchak, Russian term) soil:
Saline soils defined as a soil having a
conductivity of the saturation extract > 4 dSm-1
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) <15.
The pH <8.5.
Formerly these soils were called white alkali soils
because of surface crust of white salts.
CROP GROWTH ON SALT AFFECTED SOILS
(constraints of salt affected soils)
(A) Water availability theory:
•Available water is less as this soils are found in arid and semi arid regions
• Due to high salt concentration in available water, plants have to spent more
energy to absorb water so at that time plant may exclude nutrient with salt
from metabolically active sites

(B) Osmotic inhibition theory:

• Excessive salts in soil solution increase the osmotic pressure of soil solution
in comparison to cell sap and make more difficult for plant root to extract
moisture
• In dry period, the soil solution becomes so concentrated with salts that it kill
plants by pulling water from them called exosmosis.
(C) Specific toxicity theory:

• Soil salinity exerts a detrimental effect on plants through the toxicity of one or
more specific ions (cations as well as anions). For example toxicity of
chlorides, bicarbonates and boron
Methods of Reclamation

1. Cultural practice/ Mechanical/physical method

2. Biological method

3. Irrigation water management

 Leaching requirement (LR): The leaching requirement may be defined as
the fraction of the irrigation water that must be leached through the root zone to
control soil salinity at any specified level.
 Ddw x 100 ECiw x 100
LR = ----------------- = ---------------------
Diw Ecdw
Where
LR = Leaching requirement expressed in percentage
Ddw = Depth of drainage water in inches

Diw = Depth of irrigation water in inches

Diw = Electrical conductivity of the irrigation water in dSm-1

Ddw = Electrical conductivity of the drainage water in dSm-1

In applying this equation, a value is usually assumed in ECdw (8 dSm-1 for

most of the field crops) to represent the maximum soil salinity that can be
tolerated, for irrigation water with conductivities of 1, 2 and 3 dSm -1, respectively,
the leaching requirement will be 13, 25 and 38 per cent (taking the value EC dw as

8 dSm-1).
 ii. Biological Methods
* Use of organic manures: When sufficient amount of manures
are added the water holding capacity of soil increased and as
a result the conductivity of the soil solution decreases.

*The use of salt resistant crops is an another important feature of

the successful management of saline and alkali soils.
Highly salt resistant crops - Barley , Sugarbeet, cotton etc.
Moderately salt resistant crops - Wheat, rice, maize etc.
Low salt resistant crops - Beans, raddish etc.
3. Irrigation water management
SODIC SOILS ( Alkali soils or solonetz or
Black alkali soil)
(ESP > 15) and have a
ECe <4.0 dS/m and
pH usually >8.5.

dark brown or black colour.

The prevalence of such black stains in such soils are called

“Black alkali” soils.
.

CAUSES OF Sodicity or Alkalinity

1. Excessive use of basic fertilizers eg NaNO3,Basic slag

2. Permanent use of alkali or sodic water having high RSC
or SAR
3. No adequate drainage
4. Precipitation of Ca and Mg as carbonate (Na2CO3 or
NaHCO3) by low of mass action in which Ca and Mg are
replaced by Na on exchange complex.
5. Tidle effect (sea water) on low laying area
6. Ingress of sodic sea water
CROP GROWTH ON SODIC SOILS
(A) Adverse physical conditions:
1.Poor physical conditions.
2.The permeability of air and water and the hydraulic conductivity
are at a lower most state due to breakdown of aggregates and
dispersion of individual clay-colloids.
3. Poor aggregation(the breakdown of aggregates) is due to
dissolution of organic matter, which acts as a cementing agent
for binding individual clay particles
4.Movement of air and water is negligible as the dispersed clay
plugs all the macro and micro capillaries
5.Dispersed clay swells considerably due to high hydration
capacity of Na ions and remain unflocculated in presence of
water.
6.The downward movement of water is practically zero
7 On drying, such soils form very large clods, which are very
hard in nature. The hard crust formation on the surface of the
soil is most common characteristics.
8 The tillage operations are very difficult to carry due to increase
in bulk density due to deflocculation of clay.
9 The germination as well as the root growth is considerably
reduced due to hard crust formation

(B) High sodium on exchange complex:

1. Reduces the crop growth considerably and produce sodium
toxicity because of excess concentration of Na
2. The plants exhibit the deficiency of Ca and to some extent
Mg due to complementary ion effect i.e. higher
concentration of Na would reduce the uptake of Ca++ and
Mg++. The relative concentrations of Ca and Mg in such soils
are low due to precipitation of these ions during process of
alkalization.
Sodic soil in rainy season
Sodic soil in Summer season
(C) Effect of high pH:
1.The sodic soils have high pH and the values range
from 8.5 to as high as 10 or 11.
2.The high pH reduces the availability of P, Zn, Cu, Mn
and Fe (the availability of P increases at a very high
pH value, 12 and above, due to formation of soluble
sodium phosphate).
3. The microbial activity is also low due to
unfavourable pH and the processes of mineralization,
ammonification or nitrification are practically
negligible.
4.Higher concentration of OH‑ ion itself is not favourable
to crop growth.
Normal Soil Non-saline Sodic Soil
Normal Soil Non-saline Sodic Soil
Methods of Reclamation
I. Mechanical/physical
1. Construction of embankment to prevent tidal sea water
2. Land leveling and contour bunding
3. Establishment of drainage network
4. Breaking of hardpan in the subsurface layer through boring
auger hole
1. Deep tillage, sub soiling, profile inversion
2. Use of soil conditioners e.g. sand, tanch, ash, manures and
synthetic polymers like PVAC (polyvinyl acetate),
PAM(polyamide),
II. Chemical
 Use of amendments
iii. Biological
1. Use of manures
2. Green manure
3. Selection of Na tolerant crops
 Amendments:
Any substance other than fertilizer used to alter the
chemical and physical properties of a problematic soil. e.g..
Lime, Sulphur,Gypsum

A.Different types of chemical amendments:

1. Soluble calcium salts e.g.

(i) Calcium chloride (CaCl2.2H2O)
(ii) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
(iii) Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
2. Acid or acid formers e.g.
(i) Sulphur (S)
(ii) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
(iii) Iron sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O)
(iv) Aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O)
(v) Lime sulphur (calcium poly sulphide) (CaS5)
(vi) Pyrites (FeS2)
Reclamation of alkali soils
First plough the field (deep tillage) and then
broadcast the amendments (as per GR determined in
laboratory) in the field. Provide adequate drainage and
then flood the field with good quality water . Soluble Ca
will replace Na from exchange complex and Na will
drain away in form of Na2SO4 through drainage. This
process should be repeated till ESP of the soil
becomes normal.
After this process practice of green manuring
should be adopted which will also help in reclamation
of sodic soil. On newly reclaimed soil, prefer Na
tolerant crop?
Precaution to be taken during reclamation

1. Acid and acid formers are preferred when soil

contains alkaline earth carbonates or CaCO3
2. Acid formers should be used along with
calcium salts
3. Soluble calcium salts are preferred when soil
does not contain alkaline earth carbonates or
CaCO3
4. The kind and amount of chemical amendment
depends upon soil characteristics
B. Advantages and disadvantages of amendments:
1. CaCl2 : It contain readily soluble Ca is readily available but its cost
is a prohibitive factor.
2. Iron and aluminium sulphates :Hydrolyze readily in the soil to
form H2SO4 but have also high cost
3. H2SO4: an be used in calcareous soils but it requires special
equipments and is hazardous in handling.
4. Sulphur: Slow acting amendment and large applications are
needed. It requires more time for complete oxidation. In cool winter
season, the oxidation rate is too slow to give satisfactory results.
Since the oxidation process is fully microbial, an optimum amount
of moisture has to be maintained continuously in the soil.
5. Limestone (CaCO3):Low cost amendment but the solubility is
affected by pH of the soil and particle size of the amendment.
6. FeS2 :, Slow acting amendment and large applications are
needed. It requires more time for complete oxidation and the rate
of reaction depends on particle size. It is a cheap amendment
(7) Gypsum :
1. It is the most common amendment used for reclaiming
saline-sodic as well as non-saline sodic soils.
2. It is a low cost amendment and the rate of reaction in
replacing Na is limited
3. Low solubility in water(0.25 %) at ordinary temperature.
4. More effective in shallow depth (upper 10 cm depth)
5. It is applied by broadcast method or incorporated by disc
plough.
6. Gypsum directly prevents crust formation, swelling,
dispersion and acts as mulch in case of surface application
and indirectly increases porosity, structural stability,
infiltration and hydraulic properties, soil tilth, drainage and
leaching and reduces dry soil strength.
Alkaline Soil with Caliche (Calcium carbonate) Deposits
C. Chemical Reactions of Amendments in soil:

Soils Containing Alkaline-Earth Carbonates

GYPSUM: 2NaX + CaSO4 ↔ CaX2 + Na2SO4
SULPHUR: (1) 2S + 3O2 ↔ 2SO3 (microbiological oxidation)
(2) SO3 + H2O ↔ H2SO4
(3) H2SO4 + CaCO3 ↔ CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O*
(4) 2NaX + CaSO4 ↔ CaX2 + Na2SO4

LIME-SULPHUR (CALCIUM POLYPHOSPHATE):

1.CaS5 +8O2 + 4H2O ↔ CaSO4 + 4H2SO4
2.H2SO4 + CaCO3 ↔ CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O*
3.2NaX + CaSO4 ↔ CaX2 + Na2SO4

IRON SULPHATE:
4. FeSO4 + H2O ↔H2SO4 + FeO
5. H2SO4 + CaCO3 ↔ CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O*
6. 2NaX + CaSO4 ↔ CaX2 + Na2SO4

• letter X represents the soil exchange complex.

 ESP (initial) is obtained from the analysis of soil before
reclamation or application of gypsum; ESP (final) is usually kept at
10 and CEC is the cation exchange capacity in me / 100g or C mol
(P+) kg-1 of the soil.

For example, the gypsum requirement of a soil having initial

ESP 60, final ESP 10 and CEC 30 C mol (P+) kg-1 will be:
[60 – 10] x 30 50 x 30
me of Ca2+/100g soil = -------------------------- = ------------ = 15
100 100
 Since one hectare of soil to a depth of 15 cm (6 inches) weighs
approximately 2 x 106 kg and 1 me of replaceable gypsum as CaSO4.2H2O equals

860 ppm of amendment, the theoretical amount of gypsum required per hectare
will be :
860
Theoretical amount of gypsum (kg) ha-1 = -------- x 2 x 106 x 15
106
= 1720 x 15
= 25800 kg
= 25.80 tons

This has to be multiplied by the purity factor of gypsum to arrive at the

field requirement of the amendment. Once, the gypsum requirement in tons per
hectare is known the equivalent quantities of other chemical ameliorants can be
calculated from the following conversion table 3.
D. Required Quantity of amendments:
1. GR of the sodic/saline-sodic soil is determined by Schoonover’s method
2. GR can also determined by knowing the exch. Na in soil
3. Generally 50-70% of GR has been found most effective
4. The GR for replacing 1 me of Na upto a soil depth of 15 cm comes to about
1.92 tones/ha

The equivalent proportion of different amendments in relation to 1

ton of gypsum is as follows:
Amendments Weight in tones equivalent to 1
tone gypsum
Gypsum 1.000
Sulphuric acid 0.570
Sulphur 0.186
FeSO4.7H2O 1.620
Aluminium sulphate 1.290
Limestone (CaCO3) 0.580
Lime sulphur (Calcium polysulfide containing 0.756
24 % S)
E. The organic amendments:

(i) FYM (II) Molasses (III) Pressmud (iv) Green manuring and
(v) Paddy straw

1. Does not act directly as the chemical amendments

2. They improves the physical condition of the soil by improving
the aggregation in the soil.
3. When organic amendments decompose in soil, produce acids
which solubilize insoluble native Ca salts and thus helps in
reclamation
4. The efficiency of gypsum has been found to increase when it
is applied along with
5. Carbonated Pressmud, a byproduct from sugar factories,
contains CaCO3 solubilize by acids formrd through
decomposition helps in reclamation
7. Suiphitation pressmud from sugar factories employing
sulphitation process has superior reclamation value as it
contains sulphate of lime instead of its carbonate.
8. Green manuring with Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) has been
found most successful. The juice of green plants can
neutralize high alkalinity as its initial pH of juice being 4.01,
Sulphurated hydrogen is generated by the decomposition of
Dhaincha
9. Paddy straw or rice husk have also been used at a rate
varying between 15 to 30 tones/ha.
10 Weeds like Argemone mexicana has been found very
suitable for alkali soils. The other weeds found suitable for the
purpose of green manuring are Ipomea grandiflora and
Pongamia glabra.
11. The Russian workers have suggested the addition of
cellulose with sufficient addition of nitrogen for easy
decomposition.
Salt Tolerant crops

. ECe (dS/m) 50% Crop

yield reduction
14-18 Barley, Sugar beet, Cotton, Wheat
8-12 Safflower, Sorghum, Soybean, Rice, Tomato
4-7 Corn, Cabbage, Potato, Sweet potato, Carrot, Onion
The salt tolerance of a crop would vary according to age of the crop or the
growth stage. It will also vary according to variety of a given crop.

ESP tolerant crops

ESP Class Crop
2 – 10 Very sensitive Deciduous fruits, Nuts, Citrus,
10 – 20 Sensitive Beans
20 – 40 Moderately tolerant Clover, Oats, Tall fescue, Rice,
40 – 60 Tolerant Wheat, Cotton, Alfalfa, Barley, Tomatoes,
Beet
More than 60 Highly tolerant Crested wheat grass, Fairway wheat grass,
Tall wheat grass, grass
 ACID SOILS

DISTRIBUTION

 157 million hectares of cultivable land in

India,
 49 m ha of land are acidic, of which
 26 m ha of land having soil pH < 5.6
 23 m ha of land having soil pH 5.6 to 6.5.
ACID SOILS:
Soils dominated by H+ ions, acidic in reaction
and pH generally below 6.5
Characteristics of Acid Soils
1. Acid soils have low pH and high proportion of
exchangeable H+ and Al3+.
2. Kaolinite and illite types of clay minerals are
dominant in these soils.
3. These soils have low CEC and low base saturation.
4. These soils have high toxic concentration of Al, Fe
and Mn and deficiency of Ca and Mg.
5. These soils have nutrients and microbial imbalances.
6. These soils are generally low in available
phosphorus. Soil acidity inhibits biological N-fixation.
(i) Tillage Operation:
Light (sandy) calcareous soil develops large
number of pore spaces due to flocculation. These
type of soils have poor water-holding capacity.
Therefore, such type of soil needs compaction by
plank or roller to increase the water- holding
capacity.
(ii) Application of Organic Manure:
When sufficient amount of farm yard manure,
compost and green manure are added, the amount
of carbon dioxide and acid increases and as a
result pH of soil decreases.
(iii) Use of Chemical Fertilizer:
Availability of phosphorus is low in calcareous soil.
To increase the availability of P, the phosphatic
fertilizers should be used in the following manner:
(a) Phosphatic fertilizers should be used near the roots of
plant.
(b) Use of phosphatic fertilizers in ball form also
increases its availability.
(c) May be used in split dose.
(iv) Use of Micronutrients:
Addition of micronutrients like, zinc, copper, iron would
be helpful in increasing the yield.