Chapter 6 - Castings

The process of causing liquid metal to fill a cavity, and

solidify into a useful shape is called casting.

The casting, or founding, process consists of a series of

sequential steps performed in a definite order.

The process starts with a pattern. It is always the shape of the finished part
and roughly the same size as the finished part with slightly oversized
dimensions to allow for shrinkage and additional allowances on surfaces that
are to be machined. A two piece pattern is called a split pattern, and is used
for complex shapes.

A mold is constructed from the pattern and the cavity is filled with molten
metal.
Castings of various metals and sizes can be manufactured without further shape
or final processing. It is a basic method of producing shapes.
The mold material influences the rate of cooling of the molten metal in a
casting.
Cooling takes place in phases having different cooling rates that produce
different types of grain structures in different sections of the casting.

Ultrasonic methods are difficult to use with some castings because of noise created by
grain structure. The rough surfaces of many castings also produce problems in
transducer coupling, but ultrasonic testing is used extensively in the examination of
critical coolant passages in turbine engine blades to measure thickness.
The Gating System

Metal is fed into the cavity that shapes the casting through a gating system
consisting of a pouring basin, a down sprue, runners and in-gates.

The location of the connection for the gate can usually be determined visually.

These spots are possible concentration points for defects.

Risers
Risers, feeders, or feed heads serve as wells of material attached outside of the
casting properly to supply liquid metal as needed to compensate for shrinkage
before solidification is complete. A riser may supply replacement for some of the
liquid concentration after parts of the casting have frozen solid.

The principal purposes of risers are to replace the concentration of solidification

and to promote good directional solidification. The need for risers varies with the
casting shade and the metal being poured.
Risers

The riser in a typical sand mold is utilized as a reservoir for excess molten
metal and a means for gases to escape during the pouring sequence.

Insulation and chills can be used to make solidification more directional and to
increase casting yield.
(a) Insulated riser sleeve slows freezing of riser relative to casting.
(b) Chill at base of casting decreases freezing time for casting and makes freezing
more progressive.
(c) Combination of insulated riser and chill block promotes directional
solidification.
Chills
Imbedded in the surface of a sand mold to increase the cooling rate and help
to promote directional solidification in a reverse manner. (A heat absorbing
device). In addition to helping with directional solidification, chills may also
improve physical properties. Internal chills that become an integral part of the
casting are occasionally used to speed solidification in areas where external
chills cannot be applied.

NDT is often used to detect unfused internal chills and adjacent defects that
may be caused by the change in cooling rate created by the presence of the
chill.
Two Types
1. Internal 2. External 1.
- Made out of steel, cast iron, or copper.
- They must conform to casting size.
- Usually poured after manufacturing to prevent
moisture.
2.
Internal and External Chills
Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used in
castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage.
Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of metals, as shown in
(c).
Solidification of Metals
The casting process involves a change of state of material from liquid to solid with
control of shape being established during the change of state. Energy in the form of
heat added to a metal changes the force system that ties the atoms together.

Solidification is a reverse procedure, and heat given up by the molten material and
must be dissipated. As the temperature goes down, the atoms become less and less
mobile and finally assume their position with other atoms in the space lattice of the
unit cell, which grows into a crystal.

Shrinkage

Some of the most important problems connected with the casting processes are
those of shrinkage. The amount of shrinkage that occurs will, of course, vary with
the material being cast, but it is also influenced by the casting procedure and
techniques.

It can occur before, during or after transformation from liquid to solid.

Melting Equipment

Cupola

A considerable amount of cast is meted in a special chimney-like furnace called

a cupola. It is similar to a blast furnace used for refining iron ore.

The cupola is charged through a door above the melting zone with layers of
coke, iron, and limestone and may be operated continuously by taking off melted
iron as it accumulates in the well at the bottom. Two types of melting furnaces
used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.
Types of Molds
Sand Molding - Sand is the most commonly used material for construction of
molds. Several variations of this type of mold are – Bonded sand, Unbonded
sand, Shell, Hot box, Oven bake and Cold box.
Green Sand - Mixture of sand, clay, and moisture, where the sand is
reclaimed. Extremely flexible, low strength, and produces a casting faster at a
lower cost.The word green refers to moisture. The majority of castings are
poured in molds of green sand.
Dry Sand Molds - Made of green sand modified to favor the dry properties
(with dry resin) and then dried in an oven. Elimination of moisture minimizes
casting defects. Is expensive because of extra drying and difficulty in handling
without damage.
Shell Molds - can be considered a “precision process” that provides good
surface finish but relatively expensive. The Shell process is also referred to as
the Corning Process.
Permanent Mold - Casting reusable molds. Used for low melting point alloys.
Has good quality, high production and frequently made of metal.
Ceramic Molding – produces castings of fine detail, smooth surfaces and
exceptional dimensional accuracy. Mold is made of fine grained zirconium and
high alumina mullite slurry.
5 Basic Steps involved in making a Casting
 
1. First - a “pattern (or die) must be made” or chosen to represent the shape of
the finished product.

2. Second - a “mold is made” from the pattern and suitable mold material.

3. Third - “heating and melting of the metal”.

4. Fourth - “pouring the molten or liquid metal into the mold cavity” through
the channels.

5. Last - the removal and if required further cleaning and shaping of the part.
Patterns
The cavity in the sand is formed by using a pattern (an approximate duplicate
of the real part), which are typically made out of wood, sometimes metal. They
are constructed slightly larger than the expected resulting part to allow for
shrinkage of the liquid metal, during and after solidification, to room
temperature size. Extra material is also left on surfaces to be machined or
finished to provide removal material on the casting.
The cavity is contained in an aggregate housed in a box called the flask.
Core is a sand shape inserted into the mold to produce the internal features of
the part such as holes or internal passages. Cores are placed in the cavity to
form holes of the desired shapes. Core print is the region added to the pattern,
core, or mold that is used to locate and support the core within the mold.
A riser is an extra void created in the mold to contain excessive molten
material. The purpose of this is to feed the molten metal to the mold cavity as
the molten metal solidifies and shrinks, and thereby prevents voids in the main
casting.
A mold is constructed from the pattern
The second step is to build a mold of material that can be made to flow into close
contact with the pattern and that has sufficient strength to maintain that position.

The mold is designed in such a way that it can be opened for removal of the
pattern. The pattern may have attachments that make grooves in the mold that
serve as channels to allow for flow of material into the cavity.

These channels, or runners, must be cut in the mold material.

An opening to the outside of the mold, called a sprue, must be cut or formed. The
mold cavity is filled with molten material.
 
Sand casting
Used to make large parts (typically Iron, but also Bronze, Brass, Aluminum).
Molten metal is poured into a mold cavity formed out of sand (natural or
synthetic).
Sand Molding
Sand is the most commonly used material for construction of molds.

The basic requirements for sand moulding are:

1. Sand- To serve as the main structural material for the mold.

2. A pattern- To form a properly shaped and sized cavity in the sand.
3. A flask- To contain the sand around the pattern and to provide a means of
removing the pattern after the mold is made.
4. A ramming method- To compact the sand around the pattern for accurate
transfer of size and shape.
5. A core- To form internal surfaces on the part. (Usually not required for
castings without cavities or holes.)
6. A mold grating system- To provide a means of filling the mold cavity with
metal at the proper rate and to supply liquid metal to the mold cavity as the
casting contracts during cooling and solidification.
 
 Typical Casting Pattern

1. gate or ingate – end of the runner in a mold where the molten metal enters the
casting.
2. cope – the upper or topmost section of a flask, mold, or pattern.
3. pattern – the shape of the finished product with slightly oversized dimensions to
allow for shrinkage.
4. locking pin – part of the locking assembly of a flask.
5. drag – the lower or bottom section of the mold.
6. mold – the form containing the cavity into which molten metal is poured to make a
casting.
7. parting line – the line along which a pattern is divided for molding, or along which
the sections are separate.
8. flask – a wooden or metal frame in which a mold is made.They are usually
constructed of two parts: The upper half known as the cope. The lower half known as
the drag. These two parts are aligned by guide pins and lugs to insure accurate
positioning.
9. down sprue/sprue – the channel conveys the molten metal from the pouring basin to
the runner. Also the metal which solidifies in these channels and is found attached to
the casting after the casting solidifies.
Typical Casting Pattern (Cont.’)
10. pouring cup/pouring basin
11. bottom board – board supporting the mold
12. cheek - the side walls of the mold and also the middle section of the flask
between the cope and drag. Used for unusual shapes and where more than one
parting line is required.
13. alignment lug – part of the locking assembly of a flask
14. core – a separate part of the mold, usually made of sand, and generally baked to
create openings and various shaped cavities in the casting. Cores are bodies of mold
material, usually in the form of inserts that exclude metal flow to form internal
surfaces in a casting. Cores need good strength for handling.
Typical Casting Pattern (Cont.’)
15. riser or feeder – a reservoir of molten metal attached to the casting to
compensate for (shrinkage)the contraction of metal as it solidifies.
16. sprue well – bottom portion of the sprue.
17. runner – the portion of the gate assembly connecting the down gate or sprue
with the casting.
18. mold cavity or casting – the pouring of the molten metal into the cavity and
allowing it to harden, so it will assume and retain the size and shape of the cavity
when cooled.
Riser-Gated Casting
Schematic illustration of a typical riser-gated
casting. Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying
molten metal to the casting as it shrinks during
solidification.

Chaplets
Small metal supports (inserts), usually made up of the same metal as that to
be poured, and used to help hold cores in proper position.These usually melt
into the casting or if made of styro-foam, evaporate.
NDT may be necessary for castings that require the use of chaplets.

Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.
Types of Castings
Shell Molding
This process offers better surface finish, better dimensional tolerances, and higher
throughput due to reduced cycle times.
A heated metal pattern is covered with a mixture of sand and thermosetting
plastic. This causes a thin skin of about of sand/plastic mixture to adhere to the
pattern. This skin is removed from the pattern to form the "shell mold". The two
halves of the shell mold are secured together and the metal is poured in the shell to
form the part. Once the metal solidifies, the shell is broken.
A good surface finish and good size tolerance reduce the need for machining.
The process overall is quite cost effective due to reduced machining and cleanup
costs.
The materials that can be used with this process are cast irons, and aluminum and
copper alloys. Typical parts made with this process are connecting rods, gear
housings, lever arms etc.
Types of Castings
Investment casting
Also known as precision casting and as the lost wax process where ceramic
slurry is applied around a disposable pattern. Limited to small castings
approximately and intricate castings with close dimensional tolerances.

This process is one of the oldest manufacturing processes which is destroyed

after use. A new wax pattern is needed for every piece cast.

Producing a fine surface finish, intricate shapes can be made with high accuracy.

In addition, metals that are hard to machine or fabricate are good candidates for
this process. It can be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal
manufacturing techniques, such as dentistry, turbine blades that have complex
shapes, or airplane parts that have to withstand high temperatures.
A common characteristic of the investment casting to the sand casting is they
both may be used to produce small castings.
Investment Casting

Schematic illustration of investment casting, (lost-

wax process). Castings by this method can be
made with very fine detail and from a variety of
metals.

Figure 11.19 Investment casting of an

integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine.
(a) Wax pattern assembly. (b) Ceramic
shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is
melted out and the mold is filled, under
a vacuum, with molten super alloy. (d)
The cast rotor, produced to net or near-
net shape. Source: Howmet
Corporation.
Types of Castings
Die-casting
The metal is injected into the mold under high pressure. This results in a more
uniform part, generally good surface finish and good dimensional accuracy. For
many parts, post-machining can be totally eliminated, or very light machining
may be required to bring dimensions to size. Die casting molds (called dies in the
industry) tend to be expensive as they are made from hardened steel. These molds
are re-useable. The stronger and harder metals such as iron and steel cannot be die-
cast.
(a) (b)

Figure 11.1 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high
purity magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber
die casting process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal
Casting, Inc.
Types of Castings

Continuous Casting

Although a small tonnage of castings are produced by continuous castings, it is

possible to produce two-dimensional shapes in an elongated bar by drawing
solidified metal from a water-cooled mold. Good quality castings are possible by
this method. An automotive manufacturer use the concept as a salvage procedure
for saving bar ends of alloy steel.

In the continuous slab casting process, pictured to

the right, molten steel flows from a ladle, through a
tundish into the mold.
Types of Castings
Plaster Mold Casting
Made of plaster of paris with additives and are used only for casting nonferrous.
A uniform structure is obtained because of its slow cooling and are well suited to
the use of chills, which permit close control of thermal gradients in the mold,
producing accurate smooth surfaces, usually for small parts. Calcium sulphate is
mixed with water. Plaster molds will produce good quality finish and good
dimensional accuracy as well as intricate detail.
 
Permanent Mold
Sometimes referred to as gravity die casting because the liquid metal enters the
mold by gravity. Used for high production uniform wall thickness castings . In this
mold, the molten metal enters the mold by gravity. These molds may be re-used
and are used most for the shaping of aluminum, copper, magnesium and zinc alloys.
Types of Castings

Centrifugal Casting

Casting processes shapes the outside of the product with a mold but depends upon centrifugal
force developed by spinning.
A permanent mold is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten
metal is poured.

The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside mold wall, where it improves the
density and quality of metal as gas is forced out. The casting is usually a fine grain casting.
The inside diameter has more impurities, segregation and inclusions, which can be machined
away.

Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys
of aluminum, copper and nickel. Two materials can be cast by introducing a second material
during the process. Typical parts made by this process are pipes, hollow shafts, boilers,
pressure vessels, flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric.

Present day uses for centrifugal castings include shafts for large turbines, propeller shafts for
ships, and high pressure piping.
TABLE 11.1
Proce ss Advantages Limitations
Sand Almos t any metal cas t; no limit Some finis hing required;
to s ize, s hape or weight; low s omewhat coars e finis h; wide
tooling cos t. tolerances .

Shell mold Good dimens ional accuracy and Part s ize limited; expens ive
s urface finis h; high production patterns and equipment
rate. required.

Expendable pattern Mos t metals cas t with no limit Patterns have low s trength and
to s ize; complex s hapes can be cos tly for low quantities

Plas ter mold Intricate s hapes ; good Limited to nonferrous metals ;

dimens ional accu- racy and limited s ize and volume of
finis h; low poros ity. production; mold mak ing time
relatively long.

Ceramic mold Intricate s hapes ; clos e Limited s ize.

tolerance parts ; good s urface
finis h.

Inves tment Intricate s hapes ; excellent Part s ize limited; expens ive
s urface finis h and accuracy; patterns , molds , and labor.
almos t any metal cas t.

Permanent mold Good s urface finis h and High mold cos t; limited s hape
dimens ional accuracy; low and intricacy; not s uitable for
poros ity; high production rate. high-melting-point metals .

Die Excellent dimens ional accuracy Die cos t is high; part s ize
and s urface finis h; high limited; us ually limited to
production rate. nonferrous metals ; long lead
time.

Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts with Equipment is expens ive; part

good quality; high production s hape limited.
rate.

26
 Casting Grain Structure
THREE GRAIN TYPES
1. Fine Equiaxed.
2. Columnar.
3. Course Equiaxed.

Crystal growth starts at the surface. In the case of a casting, the heat is being given
up to the mold material in contact with the outside of the molten mass into a
formation of the solid skin.

Cooling takes place in phases having different cooling rates that will produce
different types of grain structure at different sections. The crystals. therefore, grow in
a columnar shape toward the center of the heavy sections of the casting.

The first portion of the material to cool to the freezing temperature will3 be the
1
outside liquid and a large number of these unit .cells may form
2 simultaneously
. around
the interface surface. As the crystals form, the heat of fusion
. is released and thereby
increases the amount of heat that must be dissipated before further freezing can
occur.
 Casting Grain Structure (Cont.’)
With the temperature gradient being small, growth may occur on the sides of these
columns, producing structures known as Dendrites which has a tree-like pattern
crystal formation.

In the third phase, the temperature of the remaining material tend to equalize.
Relatively uniform temperature distribution and slow cooling will permit random
nucleation at fewer points than occurs with rapid cooling, and the grains grow to
large sizes, coarse equiaxed.

Imperfections in the crystal structure of metals are of different categories. These

categories consists of Linear defects. The size of crystal growth will be limited by
interference with other crystals because of the large number of unit cell nuclei
produced at one time with random orientation.

The first grains to form in the skin of a solidification casting are likely to be fine
equiaxed type with random orientation and shapes.
Ingot Discontinuities/Defects
Porosity results from entrapped gas bubbles before and during solidification. These
bubbles are characteristically nearly round but may take many different forms.
Surface porosity is usually far more detrimental than internal. Micro-porosity is
usually in clusters along the grain boundaries internally, whereas gas holes are
rounded formed from gas evolved from the metal and results in spherical or
elongated cavities.

Non-Metallic Inclusions result from impurities remaining in the molten metal.

Inclusions are irregularly shaped. Two types are Dross and Sand inclusions.

Dendritic structures within the solidification of metal are important because

they can contribute to segregation and micro porosity within a cast part.
Shorter solidification times results in a finer grained structure with smaller
arm spacing.
Casting Discontinuities/ Defects
The most logical place to look for discontinuities on a casting is at junctions
between light and heavy sections. Examples of common defects in castings.
These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and preparation of
molds and control of pouring procedures.
 Casting Discontinuities/Defects
Blow holes - a hole in a casting caused by entrapped gas. Can be surface or
subsurface. It differs from porosity because the gas originates from contaminants on
the chills, chaplets and other inserts.

Cold shut - a surface defect that is the result of two streams of liquid metal uniting
and failing to fuse. Appears on a radiograph as distinct and smooth dark lines or a
band of variable length. Mostly caused by the presence of sprues and gates. They
usually are characterized by round corners at the edges.

Core shift - unintentional shifting of the internal core having an uneven wall
thickness in the internal passage as viewed on a radiograph.

Cooling stress - Stresses develop by uneven contraction or external constraint of

metal during cooling; also those stresses resulting from localized plastic deformation
during cooling and retained.
Casting Discontinuities/Defects
Hot tear - a fracture in the metal due to restricted contraction that originate
internally or at the surface. Has a crack-like appearance. Often occurs at a
change of section particularly in thick to thin. Sometimes referred to as “Hot
Shortness”.

Hot crack - a crack formed in the cast metal because of internal stresses set up
during cooling and solidification. Appears as a dark jagged line and numerous
branches.

Cracks - a break or rupture usually “V” shaped and relatively narrow and
deep.

Cold shot - (splatter) premature solidification due to splashing of molten

metal on the cast wall because of turbulent flow.

Pipe - essentially cone-like in shape, which occurs in the approximate center,

at the top and reaching down into a casting; caused by the shrinkage of cast
Casting Discontinuities/Defects
Internal Shrinkage:
A void or network of voids within a casting caused by inadequate feeding of that
section before, during or after solidification primarily in the outer surfaces where
the metal cools first.
It causes dimensional changes and sometimes warping and cracking and
results from various phases of contraction during solidification. Lack of
molten metal to feed shrinkage will lead to pipes, voids, cavities, hot tears, and
sponge like appearance. Shrinkage and micro shrinkage are both forms of
porosity.
Micro-shrinkage occurs where the molten metal enters the mold (mold gate) if
the metal in the gate solidifies or is blocked off while some of the metal beneath
is still molten. This type of shrinkage appears as many, subsurface, small holes;
and can appear deep in the casting with improper mold design. These voids are
more definite than porosity and tend to join up in a continuous network following
the “dendritic” pattern.
Other types of Shrinkage are: Air Locks, Cavity Shrinkage, and Filamentary.

   
Casting Discontinuities/Defects
Bleeder - a defect wherein a casting lacks completeness due to molten metal
draining or leaking out of some part of the mold cavity after pouring has stopped.

Burn-On Sand - sand adhering to the surface of the casting that is extremely
difficult to remove.

Mold Shift - a casting defect which results when the parts of the mold do not
match at the parting line.

Scab (Scabby) - a blemish caused on a casting by eruption of gas from the mold
face or by uneven mold surface or occurring where the skin from a blowhole has
partly burned away and is not welded.

Misrun - a casting not fully formed because the metal has solidified before filling
the entire mold. Can be caused by too low a pouring temperature.
Hot Tears

Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting cannot
shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the molds
and cores at the junction of light and heavy sections.
Porosity

For the purpose of radiographs – an indication having a white appearance is dense verses an indication having a dark
appearance (example – porosity, piping and micro-shrinkage have dark appearance being less dense)

Black areas describe defects, which The amount of defects is considerably

are spread all over the component. lower than in the original version and they
are located near the two flanges.
Segregation
Concentration of carbon or alloying elements at specific regions, usually as a result of
the primary crystallization of one phase with the subsequent concentration of other
elements in the remaining liquid. The appearance of dark or light bands in metal. The
solute elements in an alloy being cast can segrate during solidification. Micro-
segregation can be removed by subsequent heat treatment. Macro-segregation is the
difference that can occur through the cross-section of the casting and cannot be
removed by subsequent heat treatment. Both should be kept to a minimum. Dendritic
grain growth is much more evident in the non-eutectic alloy metals than in pure
metals. The first solids to freeze will be richer in one component than the average
compositions. The ingot-type segregation is small, but as the first solids rob the
remaining material, a gradual change of composition is caused as freezing progresses
to the centre.