LEADERSHIP

& MANAGEMENT
BASIC CONCEPT
-CFUNS-
LEADERSHIP
Leadership means:
■ Leadership is commonly defined as a process of interaction in which the leader influences
others toward goal achievement (Yukl, 1998).
■ Daft (2008) has defined leadership as consisting of six essential elements: influence,
intention, personal responsibility, change,shared purpose, and followers.
■ Others have defined leadership as the art or process of INFLUENCING people using
interpersonal skills that help others achieve their highest potential (Weihrich and
Koontz 2005; Sullivan and Garland 2010; ANA 2014).
■ Leaders are often described as powerful, influential, charismatic, dynamic, innovative,
clever, autocratic, innovative, and intelligent (Curtis et al. 2011).
■ Reed and Winston (2005) further define leadership as an integrative approach that focuses
on the use of critical thinking skills, interpersonal communication, and the ability to
be an active listener who can assist others in positive change within an organization.
Leadership
■ The process of leadership involves the leader and the follower in interaction. This
implies that leadership is a reciprocal relationship.
■ Leadership can occur between the leader and another individual; between the leader and
a group; or between a leader and an organization, a community, or a society
■ Leadership can be formal leadership, as when a person is in a position of authority,
assigned role within an organization that connotes influence, such as a clinical nurse
specialist (Northouse, 2001). An informal leader is an individual who demonstrates
leadership outside the scope of a formal leadership role.
■ Staff nurses demonstrate informal leadership when they advocate for patient needs or
when they take action to improve health care. Nurses also demonstrate informal
leadership when they speak up to improve quality of care
■ Definisi
leadership
■ Influence is an
instrumental part
of leadership.
Effective Leadership
■ Research has shown that effective leaders achieve
results by influencing, motivating, and inspiring
employees over whom they may or may not have
direct supervision (Cummings 2008).
■ In fact, leaders that focused on relationships
(transformational, supportive, considerate) were
associated with higher nurse job satisfaction and
increased retention.
■ Noneffective leaders were more inclined to focus on
tasks versus the individual employee that resulted in
low morale, decreased job satisfaction, and
increased staff turnover.
Followership and leadership
■ Followership and leadership are separate but complementary roles. The roles are also reciprocal:
without followers, one cannot be a leader. One also cannot be a follower without having a leader
(Lyons, 2002).
■ Leaders and followers are both necessary roles. Leaders need followers in order to lead. Followers
need leaders in order to follow.
■ Followership is not a passive role. On the contrary, the most valuable follower is a skilled, self-
directed professional, one who participates actively in determining the group’s direction, invests his
or her time and energy in the work of the group, thinks critically, and advocates for new ideas
(Grossman & Valiga, 2000).
■ Nurses are leaders. Nurses function as leaders when they influence others toward goal achievement.
RNs in staff nurse positions lead nursing practice by setting a direction, aligning people, and
motivating and inspiring others toward a vision. Nurses lead other nurses and their community to
achieve a collective vision of quality health care.
■ See “Examples of Nurse Leadership Role Activities”—Kelly Page:5-6
Leadership theories
■ The major
leadership theories
can be classified
according to the
following
approaches:
behavioral,
contingency, and
contemporary
Leadership
style
■ Which one you are?
Behavioral Approach
■ The three styles are autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership (Lewin, 1939; Lewin & Lippitt,
1938; Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939).
■ Autocratic leadership involves centralized decision making, with the leader making decisions and using
power to command and control others. The autocratic style is used by the leader in situations in which (1)
the task or outcome is relatively simple (such as telling the nursing assistive personnel (NAP) to take a
temperature); (2) most team members would agree with the decision and provide consensus; and (3) a
decision has to be made promptly. Autocratic leaders were associated with high-performing groups, close
supervision of the group was necessary and feelings of hostility were often present toward the autocratic
leader.
■ Democratic leadership is participatory, with authority often delegated to others. To be influential, the
democratic leader uses expert power and the power base afforded by having close, personal relationships.
In the democratic style, the leader will ask the opinions of the entire team, but the final decision usually lies
with the leader, or there may be mutual decision making by both team members and the leader, with
everyone having an equal vote. This process encourages everyone to fully accept the team’s conclusion.
This style allows all to have the opportunity to provide input and differing perspectives into the decision.
■ The third style, laissez-faire leadership, is passive and permissive, and the leader defers decision making.
Low productivity and feelings of frustration in the group were associated with laissez faire leaders.
Contingency Approaches
■ Contingency theory acknowledges that other factors in the environment influence outcomes as much as
leadership style and that leader effectiveness is contingent upon something other than the leader’s behavior.
■ The premise is that different leader behavior patterns will be effective in different situations. Contingency
approaches include Fielder’s contingency theory, the situational theory of Hersey and Blanchard, path-
goal theory, and the idea of substitutes for leadership.
■ Fielder’s theory of leadership effectiveness views the pattern of leader behavior as dependent upon the
interaction of the personality of the leader and the needs of the situation. The needs of the situation or how
favorable the situation is toward the leader influences leader member relationships, the degree of task
structure, and the leader’s position of power (Fielder, 1967).
■ Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory (2000) addresses follower readiness as a factor in
determining leadership style and considers task behavior and relationship behavior. An additional aspect of
this model is the idea that the leader not only changes leadership style according to followers’ needs, but also
develops followers over time to increase their level of maturity (Lussier & Achua, 2000).
■ Path-Goal Theory. In this leadership approach, the leader works to motivate followers and influence goal
accomplishment. By using the appropriate style of leadership for the situation (that is directive, supportive,
participative, or achievement-oriented), the leader makes the path toward the goal easier for the follower. In
Path-Goal Theory, the leadership style is matched to the situational characteristics of the followers, such as
the desire for authority, the extent to which the control of goal achievement is internal or external, and the
ability of the follower to be involved.
Contemporary Approaches
■ Contemporary approaches to leadership address the leadership functions necessary to develop learning organizations
and lead the process of transforming change.
■ These approaches include charismatic leadership, transformational leadership theory, and Wheatley’s New
Science of Leadership.
■ Charismatic Theory. A charismatic leader has an inspirational quality that promotes an emotional connection in
followers. House (1971) developed a theory of charismatic leadership that described how charismatic leaders behave,
as well as distinguishing characteristics and situations in which such leaders would be effective. Charismatic leaders
display self-confidence and strength in their convictions and communicate high expectations and confidence in others.
■ Transformational Leadership Theory. Burns (1978) defined transformational leadership as a process in which
“leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p. 21). Transformational
leadership theory is based on the idea of empowering others to engage in pursuing a collective purpose by working
together to achieve a vision of a preferred future. Burns maintained that there are two types of leaders: the traditional
manager concerned with day-to-day operations, called the transactional leader, and the leader who is committed to a
vision that empowers others, called the transformational leader.
■ Wheatley’s New Science of Leadership. “There is a simpler way to lead organizations, one that requires less effort
and produces less stress than the current practices.” She presents us with a new view of leadership, one encompassing
connectedness and self-organizing systems that follow a natural order of both chaos and uncertainty. This differs from
a view that sees leadership as following a linear order in a hierarchy. Wheatley says that the leader’s function is to
guide an organization using vision, to make choices based on mutual values, and to engage in the culture to provide
meaning and coherence. This type of leadership fosters growth within each of us as individuals and as members of a
group. The notion of connection within a self-organizing system optimizes autonomy at all levels because the
relationships between the individual and the whole are strong.
LEADERSHIP MODEL
MANAGEMENT
Management
■ The essence of management is getting work done through others (Whitehead et al.,
2010). It is the process of reaching organizational goals by working with and through people
and other organizational resources.
■ The classic definition of management was Henri Fayol’s 1916 list of managerial tasks:
planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling the work of a group of
employees (Wren, 1972). Management is defined as a process of planning, organizing and
staffi ng, leading, and controlling actions to achieve goals.
■ Lombardi (2001) added that two-thirds of a manager’s time is spent on people problems.
The rest is taken up by budget work, going to meetings, preparing reports, and other
administrative tasks.
■ There are two major but opposing schools of thought in management: scientific management
and the human relations–based approach. As its name implies, the human-relations approach
emphasizes the interpersonal aspects of managing people, whereas scientific management
emphasizes the task aspects.
The role of
manager
■ Mintzberg (1989)
divided a manager’s
activities into three
categories:
interpersonal,
decisional, and
informational.
 Managerial
Activities
Informational Interpersonal Decisional
Activities activities Activities
• Spokes • Networking • Employee
person • Conflict evaluation
• Monitoring negotiation • Resource
• Reporting and allocation
resolution • Hiring and
• Employee firing
development employees
• Coaching • Planning for
• Rewards and the future
punishments
■ Traditionally classifications
of managers are by level in
the organizational hierarchy;
common nomenclature is:
■ Top level–such as board of
directors, Presidents and
vice presidents
■ Middle level–such as
directors of nursing,
supervisory staffs and
department heads
■ First line/front line/ or
supervisory management–
such as head nurses and
staffs.
 FUNGSI
MANAJEME
N
POAC
Planing
Organizing
Actuating
Controlling
 The management functions
Henri Fayol (1925) Luther Gulick (1937) Marquis & Houston
• planning, • planning, The five functions for each phase of the management process follow:
• organization, • organizing, 1. Planning encompasses determining philosophy, goals, objectives,
• command, • staffing, policies, procedures, and rules; carrying out long- and short-range
projections; determining a fiscal course of action; and managing planned
• coordination, and • directing,
change.
• control. • coordinating, 2. Organizing includes establishing the structure to carry out plans,
• reporting, and determining the most appropriate type of patient care delivery, and
• budgeting grouping activities to meet unit goals. Other functions involve working
within the structure of the organization and understanding and using
power and authority appropriately.
3. Staffing functions consist of recruiting, interviewing, hiring, and
orienting staff. Scheduling, staff development, employee socialization,
and team building are also often included as staffing functions.
4. Directing sometimes includes several staffing functions. However,
this phase’s functions usually entail human resource management
responsibilities, such as motivating, managing conflict, delegating,
communicating, and facilitating collaboration.
5. Controlling functions include performance appraisals, fiscal
accountability, quality control, legal and ethical control, and professional
and collegial control.
 WHAT DIFFERENCES?

N
U
R
Leadership S Management
I
N
G
LEADERSHIP VS MANAGEMENT

• Influence
Leadership • LEADER G
O
A
• Getting well done through
L
Management others
S
• MANAGER
 N
U
Leadership R Management
is role S is function
I
N
G
Leadership and management are different Marquis & Houston, 2017)
Role
■ “person’s task or duty in
undertaking”. Artinya “tugas atau
kewajiban seseorang dalam suatu
usaha atau pekerjaan”
■ Peran diartikan sebagai perangkat
tingkah yang diharapkan dimiliki
oleh orang yang berkedudukan dalam
masyarakat.
Function
■ sekelompok aktivitas yang tergolong
pada jenis yang sama berdasarkan
sifatnya, pelaksanaan ataupun
pertimbangan lainnya.
■ rincian tugas yang sejenis atau erat
hubungannya satu sama lain untuk
dilakukan oleh seorang pegawai tertentu
yang masing-masing berdasarkan
sekelompok aktivitas sejenis menurut
sifat atau pelaksanaannya.
 ■ Marquis and Huston (2009) have observed that there remains some
confusion about the relationship between leadership and management.
Leadership ■ Not all leaders are managers. Bennis and Nanus (1985) popularized the phrase,
“leaders are people who do the right thing; managers are people who do things
Versus ■
right.”
Opposing scholars maintain that leadership requires more skills than
Management management. Others argue that management’s purpose is one of control
and maintaining the status quo, whereas the leader empowers others,
inspires innovation, and challenges traditional practice while
motivating followers to a common goal (Curtis et al. 2011).
■ If a manager can guide, direct, inspire, and motivate they can also lead
(Marquis and Huston 2009). Alternatively, leadership without the ability to
manage, if in a management role, can also lead to a disaster. Leadership is
part of management, not a substitute for it.
LEADERSHIP vs MANAGEMENT
■ Leadership is a much broader concept than is management. Although managers should also be leaders,
management is focused on the achievement of organizational goals.
■ Leadership, on the other hand: ...occurs whenever one person attempts to influence the behavior of an
individual or group—up, down, or sideways in the organization—regardless of the reason. It may be
for personal goals or for the goals of others, and these goals may or may not be congruent with
organizational goals. Leadership is influence (Hersey & Campbell, 2004, p. 12)
■ In order to lead, one must develop three important competencies: (1) ability to diagnose or understand
the situation you want to influence, (2) adaptation in order to allow your behaviors and other resources
to close the gap between the current situation and what you are hoping to achieve, and (3)
communication.
■ Kerr (2015) suggests, There’s a difference between leadership and management. Leaders look forward
and imagine the possibilities that the future may bring in order to set direction. Managers monitor and
adjust today’s work, regularly looking backward to ensure that current goals and objectives are being
met. The best leaders lead and let their management teams manage the work at hand. (para. 3)