STATISTICS

Lecture 2
WHY DO WE USE SAMPLES?
1. Reduced Cost
2. Greater Speed or Timeliness
3. Greater Efficiency and Accuracy
4. Greater Scope
5. Convenience
6. Necessity
7. Ethical Considerations
TWO TYPES OF SAMPLES

1. Probability sample
2. Non-probability sample
 Probability sample
1. The probabilities of selection are known.
2. They are generally referred to as random samples.
3. They allow drawing of valid generalizations about the
universe/population.
4. Samples are obtained using some objective chance
mechanism, thus involving randomization.
5. They require the use of a complete listing of the
elements of the universe called the sampling frame.
Non-probability sample
1. Samples are obtained haphazardly, selected
purposively or are taken as volunteers.
2. The probabilities of selection are unknown.
3. They should not be used for statistical inference.
4. They result from the use of judgment sampling,
accidental sampling, purposively sampling, and the like.
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

Cluster Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• Simple random sampling is the most widely-used
probability sampling method, probably because it is easy
to implement and easy to analyze.
• Simple random sampling refers to a sampling method that
has the following properties.
• The population consists of N objects.
• The sample consists of n objects.
• All possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur.
Simple Random Sampling
• There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample.
One way would be the lottery method. Each of
the N population members is assigned a unique number.
The numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed.
Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n numbers.
Population members having the selected numbers are
included in the sample.
Stratified Random Sampling
The universe is divided into L mutually exclusive sub-
universes called strata.
Independent simple random samples are obtained from
each stratum
Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
• A stratified sample can provide greater precision than a
simple random sample of the same size.
• Because it provides greater precision, a stratified sample
often requires a smaller sample, which saves money.
• A stratified sample can guard against an
"unrepresentative" sample (e.g., an all-male sample from
a mixed-gender population).
• We can ensure that we obtain sufficient sample points to
support a separate analysis of any subgroup.
Systematic Random Sampling
• Adopts a skipping pattern in the selection of sample units.
• Gives a better cross-section if the listing is linear in trend
but has high risk of bias if there is periodicity in the listing
of units in the sampling frame.
• Allows the simultaneous listing and selection of samples
in one operation.
Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic Sample
CLUSTER SAMPLING
• It considers a universe divided into N mutually exclusive
sub-groups called clusters.
• A random sample of n clusters is selected and their
elements are completely enumerated.
• It has simpler frame requirements.
CLUSTER SAMPLING
Population
Cluster Sample
Non Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Convenience Sampling
• Is a process of selecting a group of individuals who are
available for study.
• Example
• A researcher may only include close friends and clients to be
included in the sample population.
Purposive Sampling
• Is a process of selecting based from judgment to select a
sample which the researcher believed, based on prior
information will provide the data that they need.
• Example
• A human resource director interviews the qualified applicants in a
supervisory position.
Quota Sampling
• Is applied when an investigator survey collects information
from an assigned number or quota of individuals from one
of several sample units fulfilling certain prescribed criteria
or belonging to one stratum.
• Example
• A researcher wishes to interview the thrilled fans of PBA during a
championship game. He decided to interview only 100 fans. So while
watching the game at the Big Dome, the researcher keep on
interviewing the fans until he reached his quota.
Snowball Sampling
• Is a technique in which one or more members of a
population are located and used to lead the researchers
to other members of the population.
• Example.
• Imagine attempting to obtain the frame that includes all homeless
people in Metro Manila. To obtain a sample of homeless
individuals, for example the researcher will interview individuals on
the street or homeless shelter.
How to compute for sample:
• 

Where:
N = Total population
n = Sample
e = Margin of error
Example
• A group of student researchers is conducting a survey to
find out the opinion of the students of a particular
university regarding the tuition fee hike. If there 21000
students in the university, what would be the sample
size for a margin of error of a)10%? b) 5%?
Methods of Collecting Data.
Direct or Interview Method
 It is face-to-face encounter between the interviewer and the interviewee.
Indirect or Questionnaire Method
 This method utilized questionnaires to obtain information.
Registration Method
 This method of gathering information is governed by laws.
 Example: birth certificate, death certificate and licenses.
Observation Method
 This method is used to data that are pertaining to behaviors of an
individual or a group of individuals at the same time of occurrence of a
given situation are best obtain by observation.
Experiment Method
 This is used to determine the cause and effect relationship of certain
phenomena under controlled situation.
Methods of Representing Data.
• Textual Method
• This method presents the collected data in narrative and paragraph
form.
• Tabular Method
• This method presents the collected data in table which are orderly
arranged in rows and columns.
• Graphical Method
• This method presents the collected data in visual or pictorial form.
Summation Notation
• 

Examples:

1. + 2)
2. )3
Evaluate the following using the given values:
• 
Values:
X1 = 1 X2 = 3 X3 = 2 X4 = 5

Y1 = 0 Y2 = 8 Y3 = 1 Y4 = 6

Z1 = 4 Z2 = 7 Z3 = -2 Z4 = 3