Task 3

MARWAN ABOSHADY
1. Specific plasma proteins:
 α1-antitrypsin
 α1-acid glycoprotein
 AFP
 Ceruloplasmin
 Haptoglobin
 α2-macroglobulin
 Transferrin
 C-reactive protein
α1-antitrypsin
 Alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT) is the most abundant
serine proteinase inhibitor (serpin) in human plasma.
There are complex pathways that regulate
expression of the AAT gene. The major site of
synthesis is the liver and hepatocyte expression is
controlled by a specific promoter interacting with
transcription factors and other regulatory elements
in the gene sequence. AAT is expressed in several
tissues and each tissue has distinct promoters and
interacting transcription factors that control
expression.
Alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) testing is used to help
diagnose alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency as the cause of
early onset emphysema or chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) when a person does not
have obvious risk factors such as smoking or exposure
to lung irritants such as dust and fumes
α1-acid glycoprotein

 alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP or AAG) is an acute

phase protein found in plasma. It is an alpha-
globulin glycoprotein and is modulated by two
polymorphic genes. It is synthesized primarily in
hepatocytes and has a normal plasma
concentration between 0.6–1.2 mg/mL (1–3%
plasma protein).
Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) increases in the blood of
cats with feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), a lethal disease
caused by feline coronavirus (FCoV). However, the
diagnostic potential of AGP might be limited because AGP
also increases in pathophysiological conditions other than
FIP. In this retrospective study, the diagnostic potential of
serum AGP concentration was evaluated on the basis of the
pretest probability of disease,
AFP

 High levels of AFP can be a sign of liver

cancer or cancer of the ovaries or testicles,
High levels of AFP may mean other cancers,
including Hodgkin disease, lymphoma, and
renal cell carcinoma (kidney cancer).
AFP levels are decreasing. This may
mean your treatment is working.
Ceruloplasmin

 Ceruloplasmin testing is used primarily, along

with blood and/or urine copper tests, to help
diagnose Wilson disease, a rare inherited
disorder associated with excess storage of
copper in the eyes, liver, brain, and other
organs,
The normal rangr in blood : 14 to 40 MG/dl
A higher-than-normal ceruloplasmin levels may be due
to: Acute and chronic infections. Cancer (breast or
lymphoma) Heart disease, including heart attack.

A lower-than-normal ceruloplasmin levels may be due

to: Long-term (chronic) liver disease. Problem absorbing
nutrients from food (intestinal malabsorption)
Malnutrition. Disorder in which cells in the body can
absorb copper, but are unable to release it (Menkes
syndrome)
Haptoglobin

 A haptoglobin test can detect whether you

have hemolytic anemia or another type of
anemia. It may also help determine the exact
cause of increased red blood cell
destruction.
High haptoglobin levels may be a sign of an
inflammatory disease. Inflammatory diseases are
disorders of the immune system that can cause serious
health problems. But haptoglobin testing is not usually
used to diagnose or monitor conditions related to high
haptoglobin levels.
Low serum haptoglobin may also be due to severe
liver disease.
α2-macroglobulin

 Alpha 2-macroglobulin (alpha 2M) and related

proteins share the function of binding host or foreign
peptides and particles, thereby serving as humoral
defense barriers against pathogens in the plasma and
tissues of vertebrates.
Increased levels of alpha-2-macroglobulin are
found in nephrotic syndrome when other lower
molecular weight proteins are lost and alpha-2-
macroglobulin is retained because of its large size. In
patients with liver cirrhosis and diabetes, the levels are
found to be elevated.
Decreased alpha-2 globulin proteins may indicate:
Breakdown of red blood cells (hemolysis)
Transferrin

 A transferrin test is carried out to directly

measure the level of iron in the blood and also
the body's ability to transport iron in the blood.
The transferrin blood test is ordered if the
doctor suspects abnormalities of iron levels in
your body. The tests help diagnose chronic iron
overload or deficiency.
High transferrin means the liver is producing more of the
protein to use all the iron available in the body.
Low transferrin level means the body is absorbing more
iron then needed. The results of a typical transferrin test are
reported in micrograms per deciliter (mcg/dL).
Low transferrin can impair hemoglobin production (since to
make hemoglobin, you have to have iron) and so lead to
anemia. Low transferrin can be due to poor production of
transferrin by the liver (where it's made) or excessive loss of
transferrin through the kidneys into the urine.
C-reactive protein

 A c-reactive protein test measures the level of c-reactive

protein (CRP) in your blood. CRP is a protein made by your
liver. It's sent into your bloodstream in response to
inflammation. Inflammation is your body's way of
protecting your tissues if you've been injured or have an
infection. It can cause pain, redness, and swelling in the
injured or affected area. Some autoimmune disorders and
chronic diseases can also cause inflammation.
A high level of CRP in the blood is a marker of inflammation. It
can be caused by a wide variety of conditions, from infection to
cancer. High CRP levels can also indicate that there's
inflammation in the arteries of the heart, which can mean a
higher risk of heart attack.

In general, a low C-reactive protein level is better than a high

one, because it indicates less inflammation in the body.
According to the Cleveland Clinic, a reading of less than 1 mg/L
indicates you're at low risk of cardiovascular disease. A reading
between 1 and 2.9 mg/L means you're at intermediate risk.
2. Non-protein organic components of blood
plasma:

 Glucose
 Ammonia
 Urea
 Uric acid
 Creatinine
 Cholesterol
 Triglycerides
 atherogenic index
Glucose

 Glucose metabolism involves multiple processes,

including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and
glycogenolysis, and glycogenesis. Glycolysis in the
liver is a process that involves various enzymes
that encourage glucose catabolism in cells.
High blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) may
be a sign of diabetes, a disorder that can cause
heart disease, blindness, kidney failure and other
complications.
Low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) can also
lead to major health problems, including brain
damage, if not treated.
Ammonia

 Normally, ammonia is detoxified in the liver by

conversion to urea by the Krebs-Henseleit cycle.
Ammonia is also consumed in the conversion of
glutamate to glutamine, a reaction that depends
upon the activity of glutamine synthetase. Two
factors contribute to the hyperammonemia that
is seen in cirrhosis.
High ammonia levels in the blood, it may be a sign of one
of the following conditions: Liver diseases, such as cirrhosis
or hepatitis. Hepatic encephalopathy. Kidney disease or
kidney failure.
A low level of ammonia could be caused by very high
blood pressure that comes on quickly and suddenly. tests
could come back too high or too low, Its not a problem
urea

 Organisms that cannot easily and safely remove nitrogen

as ammonia convert it to a less toxic substance, such as
urea, via the urea cycle, which occurs mainly in the liver.
Urea produced by the liver is then released into the
bloodstream, where it travels to the kidneys and is
ultimately excreted in urine.
Generally, a high blood urea nitrogen level means your kidneys
aren't working well. But elevated blood urea nitrogen can also be due
to: Urinary tract obstruction. Congestive heart failure or recent heart
attack.
Low urea levels are not common and are not usually a cause for
concern. They can be seen in severe liver disease or malnutrition but
are not used to diagnose or monitor these conditions. Low urea levels
are also seen in normal pregnancy. Urea levels increase with age and
also with the amount of protein in your diet.
Uric acid

 Almost all uric acid is filtered from glomeruli, while

post-glomerular reabsorption and secretion regulate
the amount of uric acid excretion. The proximal tubule
is the site of uric acid reabsorption and secretion, and
approximately 90% is reabsorbed into blood.
High uric acid levels, it can mean you have: Kidney disease.
Preeclampsia, a condition that can cause dangerously high
blood pressure in pregnant women. A diet that includes too
many purine-rich foods.
Low levels of uric acid in the blood may suggest: Wilson's
disease, which is an inherited disorder that causes copper to
build up in your body tissues. Fanconi syndrome, which is a
kidney disorder most commonly caused by cystinosis.
alcoholism.
Creatine

 Creatine is a nitrogenous organic acid, derived from

glycine, L-arginine and S-adenosyl-L-methionine which is
involved in energy transfer in the form of
phosphocreatine (PCr) and which is metabolized to
creatinine to be excreted by the kidney.
High levels in the blood might indicate that the kidneys are not
working correctly. The creatinine blood test helps doctors to
diagnose kidney disease. A poorly functioning kidney cannot filter
creatinine as well as it usually does, which causes levels in the
blood to rise.
low creatinine means that there is too little creatine being
produced in the body. This state will relate to the liver, muscles, or
diet. High levels of creatinine usually mean that there is too much
creatine in the body, or that creatinine is not being filtered and
removed from the body properly.
Cholesterol

 Cholesterol is oxidized by the liver into a variety of bile

acids. These, in turn, are conjugated with glycine,
taurine, glucuronic acid, or sulfate. A mixture of
conjugated and nonconjugated bile acids, along with
cholesterol itself, is excreted from the liver into the
bile.
High levels of cholesterol can increase your risk of heart
disease. With high cholesterol, you can develop fatty deposits
in your blood vessels.
There is no consensus on how to define very low LDL
cholesterol, but LDL would be considered very low if it is less
than 40 milligrams per deciliter of blood. Although the risks
are rare, very low levels of LDL cholesterol may be associated
with an increased risk of: Cancer.
Triglycerides

 Through a process known as lipolysis, triglycerides are

broken down to release the fatty acids from the
monoacylglycerol in the intestine, simultaneously
secreting lipases and bile.
High blood triglycerides are a type of lipid disorder, or
dyslipidemia. This condition may occur on its own, with other
lipid disorders such as high blood cholesterol or low HDL
cholesterol, or as part of metabolic syndrome.
Low triglyceride level There is no current range for low
triglyceride levels. However, if your triglyceride levels are very
low, this may indicate an underlying condition or disease.