ANALYZING Ayesha Masood

ARGUMENTS
 WHY • That is the first step towards
critically evaluating an
SHOULD WE argument
ANALYZE • We cannot refute an argument
ARGUMENT unless we have it in a clear,
S? precise form
 Best way is to
ANALYZIN
diagram.
G SHORTER
ARGUMENT
S And Practice!
Practice! Practice!
 Death penalty should be
abolished because it is
discriminatory, there is no
evidence that it is more
AN EXAMPLE:
effective deterrent than life
imprisonment and innocent
people may get executed by
mistake
 CONCLUSION INDICATOR WORDS:
• Therefore, thus, hence, consequently, so,
STEP 1: accordingly, it follows that, for this reason, that
is why, which shows that, wherefore, this
CIRCLE implies that, as a result, this suggests that, this
being so, we may infer that
INDICATOR PREMISE INDICATOR WORDS:
WORDS • Since, because, for, given that, seeing that,
considering that, inasmuch as, in view of the
fact that, as indicated by, judging from, on
account of
 AN EXAMPLE:

Death penalty should be abolished because it

is discriminatory, there is no evidence that it is
more effective deterrent than life
imprisonment and innocent people may get
executed by mistake
STEP 2: LOCATE THE CONCLUSION
• Find the main issue and ask yourself what position the writer or
speaker is taking on that issue.
• Look at the beginning or end of the passage; the conclusion is often
(but not always) found in one of those places.
• Ask yourself, “What is the writer or speaker trying to prove?”
• Try putting the word therefore before one of the statements. If it fits,
that statement is probably the conclusion.
• Try the “because trick”. The author/speaker believes-------(conclusion)
because ----premise.
 AN EXAMPLE:

Death penalty should be abolished because it

is discriminatory, there is no evidence that it is
more effective deterrent than life
imprisonment and innocent people may get
executed by mistake
 • Number all statements
consecutively.
• Statements are simple declarative
sentences.
STEP 3:
• Consider if-then and either-or
RECOGNIZE statements as one statement.
STATEMENTS
• There may be more than one
statement in a sentence.
• You can put “it is true that” and “it
is false that” before statements.
 AN EXAMPLE:

1 2
Death penalty should be abolished because it
3
is discriminatory, there is no evidence that it is
more effective deterrent than life
4
imprisonment and innocent people may get
executed by mistake
 STEP 4: DIAGRAM THE ARGUMENT

Distinguish between linked and unlinked statements.

Statements are linked:

• When removing one diminishes the support of the other for
the argument.
• All old home residents are more than 70 years old. Zia is an
old home resident. Therefore Zia is more than 70 years old.
STEP 4: DIAGRAM THE ARGUMENT

• Distinguish between linked and unlinked statements.

• Statements are unlinked:
• When removing one does not diminishes the support of
the other for the argument.
• Statements provide support for argument
independently.
• Nick doesn’t own a car. Nick is legally blind. So, Nick
probably won’t drive a car to the game.
Possible Forms of Arguments
LINEAR SEQUENTIAL ARGUMENTS:
• May be simple or have sub-arguments

P1 P2 C
Example
• P2 Lassie is a mammal, since P1 Lassie is a dog. So C Lassie is warm
blooded animal.
• A1 P It is part of our legal system that parents take responsibility for
their children. C Therefore, damage done by children has to be paid
by their parents. A2 P Sue’s child Mark has caused a car accident
driving his parent’s car resulting in severe damages to other person’s
cars. C Therefore, Sue has to pay the damages.
CONVERGENT ARGUMENT
• Two or more premises supporting
the argument are logically P2
independent.
P1 P3
C
Example
• Thomas’ fingerprints were on the murder weapon. Sue saw Thomas
committing the murder. A camera took pictures of the crime
identifying Thomas as the murderer. Therefore, Thomas is the
murderer
• Lassie is a great pet, because she is smart and she drives away
intruders
LINKED ARGUMENTS
• Two or more premises
P1
logically linked provide
support for a conclusion.
C
P2
Example
• C Lassie is a mammal, since P1 Lassie is a dog and P2 all dogs are
mammals.
• P1 Either today is Tuesday or Thursday. P2 Today isn’t Tuesday. C
Therefore, today is Thursday.
Divergent Argument
• A premise sets up
support for two or more
conclusions
P1
• Example:
• Lassie is a dog so she
need regular walks and C1 C2
an occasional good
brushing
PRACTICE
• Zain probably isn’t home. His car isn’t in the driveway, and there are no
lights on in his house.
• Don’t copy off Zia’s exam. He’s one of the worst students in class. My
roommate told me he’s bombed every test this semester.
• Several states have abolished the insanity defense as a defense against
criminal responsibility. This may be popular with voters, but it is morally
indefensible. Insanity removes moral responsibility, and it is wrong to
punish someone who is not morally responsible for his crime. Moreover,
it is pointless to punish the insane because punishment has no deterrent
effect on a person who cannot appreciate the wrongfulness or criminality
of his or her actions.
• It’s foolish to smoke cigarettes. Smoking is expensive, unhealthy,
and obnoxious to many nonsmokers. I wouldn’t date anyone who
smokes cigarettes.
• School tests should be abolished. Tests introduce competition
where it does not belong. They deny the individuality of students’
talents and interests. They degrade education by encouraging
passivity, mindlessness, and triviality. Finally, they send the wrong
messages about what is valuable in education and in life.
• Never fly Cattle Car Airlines. They’re never on time, and the food
tastes like warmed-over cardboard
• Here is a gentleman of a medical type, but with the air of a military
man. Clearly an army doctor, then. He has just come from the tropics,
for his face is dark, and that is not the natural tint of his skin, as his
wrists are fair. He has undergone hardship and sickness, as his
haggard face says clearly. His left arm has been injured. He holds it in
a stiff and unnatural manner. Where in the tropics could an English
doctor have seen much hardship and get his arm wounded? Clearly in
Afghanistan. (Sherlock meets Dr. Watson).
• Only three people could have stolen the CD: Danny, Stacy, or Patrick.
But Stacy couldn’t have stolen the CD because she was out riding her
bike. Patrick couldn’t have stolen the CD because he was at a friend’s
house. Therefore, Danny must have stolen the CD.