ME6504 – Metrology & Measurements

Unit 3 – ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

Basic concept of lasers Advantages of lasers – laser Interferometers –

types – DC and AC Lasers interferometer – Applications – Straightness

– Alignment. Basic concept of CMM – Types of CMM –

Constructional features – Probes – Accessories – Software –

Applications – Basic concepts of Machine Vision System – Element –

Applications.
 Laser stands for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation”.

 It is monochromatic collimated beam of light in which waves are

coherent.

 It can be focused into either a parallel beam or into a very small

point by the use of lens.

 Upto a great distance, the beam has no divergence but it begins to

expand at a rate of about 1mm/m.
 The laser beam is visible and it can be easily observed.

 Its centre can be easily judged to an accuracy of 1 mm over 2m.

 It can be used for accurate measurements in the order of 0.1μm in

100m.

 A typical helium-neon laser source produces a 1 mm to 2 mm

diameter beam of pure red light having power of 1MW.
Laser Telemetric system
 Laser telemetric system is a non contact gauge which measures a
collimated laser beam.

 It measures at the rate of 150 scans per second.

 It consists of three main components:

1. Transmitter

2. Receiver

3. Processor electronics
 Transmitter produces a collimated parallel scanning laser beam
moving at a high constant linear speed. The beam appears as a red
line after scanning.

 The receiver collects the laser beam and photo electrically senses the
laser light transmitted through the object being measured.

 The processor receives the signal and converts it into convenient

form.
 The transmitter has the following components:

1. Low power helium neon gas laser

2. Synchronous motor

3. Collimating lens

4. Reflector prism

5. Synchronous pulse photo detector

6. Replaceable window.
Laser scanning gauge
Advantages of laser scanning gauge:

 Accuracy of ± 0.25μm for 10 – 50 mm diameter objects.

 It is used for objects of 0.05 mm to 450 mm diameter.
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is used for contact inspection parts.

 When it is used for computer integrated manufacturing, CMMs are controlled by a

computer numerical control machine.

 It has movements in X-Y-Z direction which can be easily controlled and measured.

 Each slide in three directions has transducer which gives the digital display and it senses
+ve/-ve direction.

 The measuring head has a probe tip which can be of different kinds such as taper tip, ball
tip etc.
Types of CMM:

1. Cantilever type

2. Bridge type

3. Horizontal boring type

4. Vertical boring type.

Cantilever type
 It is easy to load and unload but it is most
sensitive to mechanical error because of sag or
deflection in y axis beam.
Bridge type
 It is difficult to load but it is less sensitive to
mechanical errors.
Moving bridge type

 Most widely used

 Has stationary table to support workpiece to be measured

and a moving bridge

 Disadvantage- with this design, the phenomenon of yawing

(sometimes called walking) can occur- affect the accuracy

 Advantage- reduce bending effect

Fixed bridge type

 In the fixed bridge configuration, the bridge is rigidly attached to the

machine bed

 This design eliminates the phenomenon of walking and provides

high rigidity
Horizontal arm type
 It is best suited for large heavy work pieces.
 Unlike the previous machines, the basic horizontal arm-type CMM

 Also referred to as layout machine

 Has a moving arm, and the probe is carried along the y-axis

 Advantage- provides a large area, unobstructed work area

 Ideal configuration for measurement of automobile parts

Column type
 Often referred to as universal measuring machine instead of CMM

 The column type CMM construction provides exceptional rigidity

and accuracy

 These machines are usually reserved for gage rooms rather than
inspection
Gantry type
 The support of workpiece is independent of the x and y axes, both
are overhead, supported by four vertical columns rising from the
floor

 This setup allows you to walk along the workpiece with the probe,
which is helpful for extremely large pieces
Causes of errors in CMM
 Table of CMM may not have perfect geometrics.
 Probes may have a degree of run out.
 Some perpendicularity errors occur in when probe is moving up and down.
 Dimensional errors of a CMM is influenced by
1. Straightness & perpendicularity of the guide ways
2. Scale division and adjustment of scales.
3. Probe length and probe structure.
4. Interpolation error due to digitization
5. Errors of data feeding by operators into computers
6. Specimen weight, clamping, surface finish and hardness.
7. Environment.
Advantages of CMM
 The inspection rate is increased.
 Improved accuracy of machined parts is obtained.
 It minimizes the operator error.
 Skill requirements of the operator are reduced.
 It reduces the inspection fixturing and maintenance cost.
 Uniform inspection quality is ensured.
 It reduces the calculating time and recording time.
 It reduces setup time.
 Compensation is provided for misalignment.
 There is no need of separate go/no go gauges for each feature.
 It reduces scrap and good part rejection.
 It reduces offline analysis time.
Disadvantages of CMM

 The label and probe may not be in perfect alignment.

 The probe may have run out.
 The probe moving in Z-axis may have some perpendicular errors.
 The probe will move in both X and Y directions but it does not need to be square
to each other.
 There may be errors in digital system.
The effect of error correction can be tested by means of calibrated step gauges.

The following accuracy / test items are carried out for CMM.
1. Measurement accuracy.
a) Axial length measuring accuracy.
b) Volumetric length measuring accuracy.
2. Axial motion accuracy.
a) Linear displacement accuracy
b) Straightness
c) Perpendicularity
d) Pitch, Yaw and roll.
Features of CMM software
 Measurement of diameter, centre distance, length.
 Measurement of plane and spatial curves.
 Minimum CNC programme.
 Data communications.
 Digital input and output command.
 Programme for the measurement of spur, helical, bevel and hypoid
gears.
 Interface of CAD software.
CNC - CMM
Machine Vision System
 Machine vision can be defined as the simulating the image recognition and
analysis capabilities of the human system with electronic and
electromechanical techniques.

 The method uses a light source and the image of the work piece can be
projected on the measuring grid on the face of a television tube or CCD.

 Then, the diameter of the work piece is computed in terms of the image
parameters such as the image application factor, focal distance and image
length on CCD.
Process of Machine Vision System

1. Image formation
2. Processing of image
3. Analyzing the image
4. Interpretation of image.
Important fields of Machine Vision System
 Inspection
It is the ability of an automated vision system to recognize well defined pattern. If these pattern
match are stored in the system, it makes machine vision ideal for inspection of raw materials,
parts, assemblies etc.

 Part identification
It is the ability of a part recognition provides the positive identification of an object for decision
making process.

 Guidance and control

It provides sensor feedback for real time guidance and control ranging from visual serving of
industrial robots and weld seam tracking to calculate the geometric off sets for part processing and
assembly operations.
Advantages of Machine Vision System

 It reduces the tooling and fixture cost.

 It eliminates the need for precise part location.
 It integrates the automation of dimensional verification.
 It helps to detect defects.
Applications of Machine Vision System

 Used to replace, machining for applications such as welding, machining to

maintain relationship between tool and work.
 It is used for printed circuit board.
 Used for weld seam tracking, robot guidance and control, inspection of
microelectronics devices and tooling, on line inspection in machining operation,
online inspection of assembling, maintaining high speed packaging.
 It is for the recognition of object from its image.
Interferometer
 The high point of wave is called crest and the low point is called trough.

 The distance between two troughs or two crests is called wavelength λ.

 Light travels along the OX axis and the time taken to travel one wavelength
is called time period (T).

 The maximum disturbance of the wave is called amplitude (A) and velocity
of transmission is (λ/T) is called frequency.
Components of Laser Interferometry:
1. Two frequency laser source
2. Optical elements
i. Beam splitter
ii. Beam bender
iii. Retro reflector
1. Laser heads measurement receiver
2. Measurement display.
Beam splitter
Applications of laser interferometer
Linear measurement Angular measurement
Laser equipment for straightness

 Autocollimator
 Alignment telescope
Michelson Interferometer
Twyman – Green Interferometer
Machine tool metrology

 Rigidity and stiffness of machine tool and its components.

 Alignment of various components in relation to one another.

 Quality and accuracy of the control devices and the driving

mechanism.
 Geometrical test:

In this test, dimensions of components, position of components and

displacement of component relative to one another are checked.

i. Static test:

The test which checks the alignment accuracy of the various parts of
machine tools is called static tests.

ii. Dynamic test:

The test which performed under dynamic loading conditions is called

dynamic tests.
 Practical test:
In this test, test pieces ae machined in machines. The test pieces must
be approximate to the fundamental purpose for which the machine has
been designed.
Various geometrical checks on machine tool
1. Straightness
2. Flatness
3. Parallelism, equidistance and coincidence
4. Squareness of straight line and plane
5. Rotations
a) Out of round
b) Eccentricity
c) Run out
d) Periodical axial slip
e) camming
6. Movement of all the working components.
7. Spindle test for
a) Concentricity
b) Axail slip
c) Accuracy of axis and position.
Machine tool tests
 Test for levelling the installation of machine tool in horizontal and
vertical planes.
 Tests for perpendicularity of guide ways to other guide ways
 Test for flatness of machine bed, straightness and parallelism of bed
ways on bearing surfaces.
 Test for true running of the main spindle and its axis movements.
 Test for line of movement of various members such as spindle,
tables and cross slides.
 Test for parallelism of spindle axis to guide ways or bearing
surfaces.
Alignment tests on lathe
 Levelling the machine.
 True running of locating cylinder of main spindle.
 True running of headstock center.
 Parallelism of main spindle to saddle movement.
 True running of taper socket in the main spindle.
 Movement of upper slide parallel with main spindle in vertical plane.
 Parallelism of tailstock guide ways with the movement of carriage.
 Parallelism of tailstock sleeve taper socket to saddle movement.
 Pitch accuracy of lead screw.
 Alignment of lead screw bearing with respect to each other.
Alignment tests on milling machine
 Cutter spindle axial slip or float.
 Eccentricity of external diameter.
 True running of internal taper.
 Surface parallel with longitudinal movement.
 Traverse movement parallel with spindle axis.
 Centre T-slot square with the arbor.
 Tests on column.
 Over arm parallel with the spindle.
Alignment test on drilling machine
 Flatness of clamping surface of base.
 Flatness of clamping surface of table.
 Perpendicularity of drill head guide to the base plate.
 Perpendicularity of drill head guide with table.
 Perpendicularity of spindle sleeve with base plate.
 True running of spindle taper.
 Parallelism of the spindle axis with its vertical movement.
 Squareness of clamping surface of table to its axis.
 Total deflection.
Acceptance tests for surface grinders

 Table top parallel to its movement by attaching the dial gauge in the stationary
spindle and dial feeler touching the table top and traversing the table.

 Spindle axis parallel to table top by fitting dial gauge on the radial arm of the
spindle and its feeler touching the square testing on table.

 Slots parallel to table movement by fitting the dial gauge in the stationary spindle
and dial feeler touching the slot and traversing the table.
 Vertical movement of spindle square with the table top by fitting dial gauge in the
spindle and its feeler touching the square resting on table.

 Spindle axis square with the slot by fitting dial gauge on an arm fitted to spindle
and rotating the spindle by 180º.
CMM Probes
 CMM measure work place dimensions by moving a sensing device called a probe, in
the machine’s is 3D envelope.

 The probes convert physical measurements into electrical signals by using various
measuring systems within the probe structure.

 CMM probes fall into two general categories:

i) Tactile (or) contact probes

ii) Non contact probes

Contact Probes:
 As the name suggests, gather data by physically touching the work piece ie the
acquisition of the measuring points takes place by probing with a stylus.

 Contact probes are classified as follows:

i. Hard or fixed probes

ii. Touch trigger probes

iii. Measuring type or displacement probes

Touch trigger type probes
Measuring type (or) Displacement probe
Non contact probes

 It is also called as proximity probes are used when fast, accurate measurements

are required with no physical contact with the part.

 These probes enable the measurement of flexible parts whose soft material and

geometry might be distorted with a contact probe.

 Since there is no contact with surface, there is no wear and tear of the probe.
Other types of probes

 Optical probe

 Acoustical probe

 Laser probe

 Vision probe
Laser probe Vision probe
CMM Styli
 A stylus is that part of the probe, that makes contact with the work piece.

 It is usually a hard ball attached at one end of a small shaft which is threaded at the other
end.

 Styli of different materials and configurations are available for different applications.

 They can have balls made from ruby, silicon nitride, ceramic, zirconia or tungsten
carbide.

 Styli stems or shanks are made from materials like stainless steel, ceramic, titanium,
tungsten carbide or carbon fibre.
Types of styli:

 Standard (or) straight styli

 L-shaped styli
 Star styli
 Pointer and scriber styli
 Disc styli
 Cylinder styli
 Ceramic half sphere styli
 Swiveling styli
 Pin styli
Applications of styli