CHAPTER 6

GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES

& CURRENTS

6.0 Introduction

6.1 Generation of High DC Voltages

6.2 Generation of High AC Voltages

6.3 Generation of Impulse Voltages

6.4 Generation of Impulse Currents

1
6.0 Introduction
 Lightning discharges are the only known “natural” form of high
voltage.
 Other forms of high voltage are man-made or “synthetic” to fulfill
specific goals. Three main purpose-oriented modes are:-
 The use of high voltage in electric power transmission to avoid excessive
line currents which would render the transmission system uneconomical.
 High voltage is utilized is based on the fact that bodies charged under
high voltage develop an electrostatic force. Applications: cathode-ray
tubes, particle accelerators, xerography, spray painting, and electrostatic
precipitators.
 High-voltage presence makes use of the ability of high voltage to initiate
ionization in dielectric materials where energy is subsequently released
in controlled quantities. Applications: e.g., ignition in internal combustion
engines, gas-discharge lamps, and ozone generation

2
Cont’…
Definition of Voltage Levels (IEC60038)
 A high voltage is voltage being greater than 1000 V for
AC and greater than 1200 V for DC.
 Voltage class

3
Cont’…
 In the fields of electrical engineering and applied physics, high
voltages (D.C, A.C & impulse) are required for several
applications.
 For electron microscopes and x-ray units require high D.C
voltage.
 High A.C voltages are required for testing power apparatus
(transformers, cables, capacitors, circuit breakers, etc).
 High impulse voltages are required for testing purposes to
simulate overvoltages that occur in power system due to
lightning or switching action.
 For electrical engineers, the main concern of high voltages is for
the insulation testing of various components in power systems.

4
 6.1 Generation of High DC Voltages
 The most efficient method of high D.C voltages is through the
process of rectification employing voltage multiplier circuits.
 Electrostatic generators have also been used for generating high D.C
voltages.
 For the generation of D.C voltages of up to 100kV, electronic valve
rectifiers are used and the output currents are about 100 mA.
 The rectifier valves require special construction since a high
electrostatic field of several kV/cm exists.
 There are two methods of generating high D.C voltages:-
• Through the process of rectification employing voltage
multiplier circuits (Half-wave Rectifier Circuit, Full-wave Rectifier
Circuit, Voltage Doubler Circuit & Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier).
• Electrostatic generators.
5
Cont’…
 IEEE std. 4-1978, the value of direct test
voltage is defined by its arithmetic mean
value,

6
6.1.1 Half-wave Rectifier Circuit
 The simplest circuit for generation of high direct voltage
is the half wave rectifier shown in Fig. 6.1(a)

Fig. 6.1 (a) Single Phase rectifier

 Here RL is the load resistance and C the capacitance to

smoothen the D.C output voltage.

7
Cont’...
 Assuming the ideal transformer and small internal
resistance of the diode during conduction the capacitor C
is charged to the maximum voltage Vmax during
conduction of the diode D.
 Assuming that there is no load connected, the D.C
voltage across capacitance remains constant at Vmax
whereas the supply voltage oscillates between ±Vmax
 During negative half cycle the potential of point A
becomes – Vmax

Fig. 6.1 (b) Output voltage without C

8
Cont’...
 If the circuit is loaded, the output voltage does not remain constant at Vmax.
 After point E (Fig. 6.1 (c)), the supply voltage becomes less than the capacitor
voltage, diode stops conducting.
 The current now flows out of C to furnish the current iL through the load.
 While giving up this energy, the capacitor voltage also decreases at a rate
depending on the time constant CR of the circuit and it reaches the point F
corresponding to Vmin.
 Beyond F, the supply voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage and hence
the diode D starts conducting charging the capacitor C again to Vmax and also
during this period it supplies current to the load also.

9
Fig. 6.1 (c) Output voltage with C
Cont’...
 Assuming the charge supplied by the transformer to the
load during conduction period t, which is very small to be
negligible, the charge supplied by the transformer to the
capacitor during conduction equals the charge supplied by
the capacitor to the load.
 During one period, a charge transferred to the load RL

Where I is the mean value of the D.C output and VRL(t) the
D.C voltage which includes a ripple
10
Cont’...

11
Cont’...
 The single phase half-wave rectifier circuits have the
following disadvantages:

 (i) The size of the circuits is very large if high and pure D.C.
output voltages are desired.

 (ii) The H.T. transformer may get saturated if the amplitude

of direct current is comparable with the nominal alternating
current of the transformer.

12
6.1.2 Full-wave Rectifier Circuit
 A full wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 6.2 (below)
 In the positive half cycle, the rectifier A conducts and charges the capacitor
C.
 In the negative half cycle the rectifier B conducts and charges the
capacitor.
 The sources transformer requires a centre tapped secondary with a rating
of 2 V

Fig6.2 Full wave rectifier

13
Cont’…
 By using full-wave instead of half-wave circuit, the ripple
voltage is halved, since the discharge period of half-wave
is larger.

14
Cont’…

15
6.1.3 Voltage Doubler Circuit
 HighD.C voltages can be generated by using :-
 Voltage doubler
 Cascaded voltage multiplier circuits

 Cascade circuit – converts low level AC to higher level

DC using a ladder construction of diodes and
capacitors
 Cockroft-Walton (1932) – CW generator, multiplier
 Heinrich Greinacher (1919) – Greinacher multiplier

16
6.1.3 Voltage Doubler Circuit
 One of the most popular doubler circuit due to Greinacher is shown
in Fig. 6.3
 Suppose B is more positive with respect to A and the diode D 1
conducts thus charging the capacitor C 1 to Vmax with polarity.
 During the next half cycle terminal A of the capacitor C 1 rises to
Vmax and hence terminal M attains a potential of 2 Vmax.
 Thus, the capacitor C2 is charged to 2 Vmax through D 2.
 Normally the voltage across the load will be less than 2 Vmax
depending upon the time constant of the circuit C 2RL.

Fig. 6.3 Voltage Doubler Circuit

17
6.1.4 Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier
 Fig. 6.4 shows a multistage single phase cascade circuit of
the Cockroft-Walton type.

Fig. 6.4 Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier Circuit

18
Cont’…
NO LOAD OPERATION
 During the next half cycle when B becomes positive with respect to A, potential of
M falls and, therefore, potential of N also falls becoming less than potential at M′
hence C2 is charged through D2.
 Next half cycle A becomes more positive and potential of M and N rise thus
charging C′2 through D′2.

19
Cont’…
NO LOAD OPERATION
 Finally all the capacitors C′1, C′2, C′3, C1, C2, and C3
are charged.
 The voltage across the column of capacitors
consisting of C1, C2, C3, keeps on oscillating as the
supply voltage alternates.
 However, the voltage across the capacitances C′1, C
′2, C′3, remains constant and is known as
smoothening column.
 The voltages at M′, N′, and O′ are 2 Vmax , 4
Vmax and 6 Vmax.
 The total output voltage is 2nVmax where n is the
number of stages.
 The equal stress of the elements (both capacitors
and diodes) used is very helpful and promotes a
modular design of such generators.

20
Cont’…

21
Cont’…
 In general;-
 When the AC input reaches its first peak the first diode is allowing current to flow into the first capacitor,
charging it up.
 When the same AC signal reverses polarity, the first diode switches off and the second one switches on. Now
current flows from both the AC source and the first capacitor, charging the second capacitor to twice the charge
held in the first.
 With each change in polarity of the input, the capacitors add to the upstream charge.
 The increase in voltage, assuming perfect components, is two times the input voltage
times the number of stages. I
4 5
0 T/2 T 3T/2 2T 5T/2 3T 7T/2 4T
(-) (+) (-) (+) (-) (+) (-) (+) (-)
C2' C2
2 0 2û 0 2û 0 2û 0 2û 0
2 3 U
3 0 2û 2û 2û 2û 2û 2û 2û 2û

4 0 0 2û 4û 2û 4û 2û 4û 2û C1' C1

5 0 0 0 4û 4û 4û 4û 4û 4û
1
û

22
Cont’…

23
1.2 MV cascade DC generator
Cont’…
GENERATOR LOADED
 When the generator is loaded, the output voltage will never reach the value 2n
Vmax.
 Also, the output wave will consist of ripples on the voltage.
 Thus, we have to deal with two quantities, the voltage drop ΔV and the ripple δV.

For n-stage circuit, the total ripple will be,

25
Cont’…
 Voltage drop, ΔV is the difference between the theoretical
no load voltage 2nVmax and the on load voltage,

 For large values of n (≥5) will be small and may

be neglected, thus

26
Cont’…
 Voltage regulation is the ratio between voltage drop and no load voltage, 2nVmax

 The optimum number of stages assuming a constant Vmax, I, f and C can be

obtained

 In general, it is more economical to use high frequency and smaller value of

capacitance to reduce the ripples or the voltage drop rather than low frequency
and high capacitance.

27
Electrostatic Generator
 Electrostatic generators convert mechanical energy
directly into electrical energy.
 In contrast to electromagnetic energy conversion,
however, electrical charges are moved in this generator
against the force of electrical fields, thus gaining higher
potential energies and consuming mechanical energy.
 Van de Graaff (1931) succeeded with the development of
electrostatic belt-driven generators.
 These generators are in common use today in nuclear
physics research laboratories

28
Van de Graaff – transporting charges with a moving
belt
• Charge is sprayed onto an insulating moving belt from corona points (sharp
needles)
• Charge removed and collected from the belt connected to the inside of an
insulated metal electrode through which the belt moves
• The belt returns with charges dropped and fresh charge is sprayed onto it
- belt speed 1000-2000 m/min

The potential of the HV

electrode at any instant
is
U = Q/C
Potential of electrode
rises at a rate of
Electrostatic Generator
 The basic principle of operation is explained with the help
of figure below,
 An insulated belt is moving with uniform velocity (ν) in
an electric field of strength E (x).
 Suppose the width of the belt (b) and the charge density
(σ) and consider a length of the belt (dx), the charge dq
= σ bdx. The forced experienced by this charge given by,

30
Electrostatic Generator
 Power required to move the belt = Force × Velocity

Current is given by,

The power required to move the belt,

Assuming no losses, the power output is also to VI

31
Electrostatic Generator
 Rough estimate of current supplied by the generator:-
 Assume, electric field (E) is normal to the belt and homogeneous
 Flux density (D)=0E , r =1 and 0 =8.854pF/m
 According to Gauss law, D=, where  the surface charge density
 Therefore, D= = 0E
 Assume, E=30kV/cm or 30,000 kV/m
 Therefore

= 8.854 x 10-12 x 3000x103 =26.56x10-6 C/m2 Assuming, belt

width (b) =1m, velocity (v)=10m/s
The current supplied by the generator is,
I=bv
= 26.56x10-6 x 1 x 10
= 265 A

32
Electrostatic Generator
 The advantages are:
(i) Very high voltages can be easily generated
(ii) Ripple free output
(iii) Precision and flexibility of control

 The disadvantages are:

(i) Low current output
(ii) Limitations on belt velocity due to its tendency for
vibration. The vibrations may make it difficult to have an
accurate grading of electric fields

33
6.2 Generation of High AC
Voltages
 Generation of high voltages and high currents are
required for the purpose of testing various types of
power system equipment.
 Test transformers normally used for the purpose have
low power rating but high voltage ratings.
Equipments Currents required
Insulators, Circuit breakers, 0.1-0.5 A
Bushings, Instruments
transformer

Power transformers, H.V 0.5-1 A

Capacitors

Cables 1A and above

34
6.2 Generation of High AC
Voltages
 These transformers are mainly used for short time
tests on high voltage equipments.
 For higher voltage requirement, a single unit
construction becomes difficult and costly.
 These drawbacks are overcome by series
connection or cascading of the several identical
units of transformers.
 High AC voltages can be generated by either
 Test transformers (single and cascade)
 Resonant Circuits

35
 Single-Stage Transformer – up to 400 kV
1. Iron core
2. LV winding
3. HV winding
4. Field grading shield
5. Grounded metal
tank/base
6. HV bushing
7. Insulating shield or
tank
8. HV electrode
6.2.1 Cascaded Transformers
 For generating AC test voltages of less than a few
hundred kV, a single transformer can be used.
 For voltages higher than 400 KV, it is desired to cascade
two or more transformers.
 Fig. 6.6 shows a basic scheme for cascading three
transformers.

Fig. 6.6 Basic 3 stage cascaded transformer

37
 Cascade Transformer – connecting HV windings in series
• First transformer is at ground potential, The second and third transformers are kept on insulators
• The high voltage winding of the first unit is connected to the tank of the second unit
• The low voltage winding of the second unit is
supplied from the excitation winding (tertiary winding) of the
output
first transformer, which is in series with the
300 kV
high voltage winding (secondary winding) of the first transformer
at its high voltage end.
• The rating of the excitation winding is almost
identical to that of the primary winding. 200 kV
U1 1 kV
199 kV

100 kV

Insulation
LV primary winding U1 1 kV
HV secondary winding 99 kV
Excitation winding
U2 2U2 3U2
input U1 1 kV

https://noppa.tkk.fi/noppa/kurssi/s-18.3150 09/19/2021
Cascaded Transformers Equivalent
Circuit
 The equivalent circuit of an individual stage

 Here Zp , Zs, and Zt , are the impedances associated with each

winding.
 The impedances are shown in series with an ideal 3-winding
transformer with corresponding number of turns Np , Ns and Nt.
39
Con’t…
 Zps = leakage impedance measured on primary side with
secondary short circuited and tertiary open.
 Zpt = leakage impedance measured on primary side with
tertiary short circuited and secondary open.
 Zst = leakage impedance on secondary side with tertiary
short circuited and primary open.
 If these measured impedances are referred to primary side
then,
 Zps = Zp + Zs, Zpt = Zp + Zt and Zst = Zs + Zt
 Solving these equations, we have

Zp =(1/2) (Zps + Zpt – Zst), Zs =(1/2)(Zps + Zst – Zpt)

 and Zt =(1/2) (Zpt + Zst – Zps)
40
Con’t…
 Assuming negligible magnetising current, the sum of the ampere turns of all the
windings must be zero.
Np Ip – Ns Is – Nt It = 0
 Assuming lossless transformer, we have,
Zp = jXp, Zs = jXs and Zt = jXt
 Also let Np = Nt for all stages, the equivalent circuit
for a 3-stage transformer would be

Equivalent circuit of 3-stage transformer

41
Cascaded Transformers
 Further reduced to a very simplified circuit

 The resulting short circuit reactance Xres is obtained from

the condition that the power rating of the two circuits be
the same.

42
Cascaded Transformers
 Here currents have been shown corresponding to high voltage
side

 Equation above can be generalized for an n-stage transformer

as follows:

 Where Xpi, Xsi and Xti are the short-circuit reactance of the
primary, secondary and tertiary windings of ith transformer.
43
Con’t…
 The advantages of cascading the transformers is
that the natural cooling is sufficient and the
transformers are light and compact.
 The main disadvantages of this scheme :-
 Lower stages of the primaries of the transformers
are loaded more as compared with the upper stages
 Very expensive and difficult to repair
 Bulky and heavy

44
900 kV cascade transformer (AC)
6.2.2 Resonant Circuit
 An alternative method that is more economical and sometimes technically
superior is offered by resonant circuits
 Parallel resonant circuits involves the addition of parallel reactors either
in the primary low-voltage circuit or the secondary high-voltage circuit.
 The power factor can be greatly improved
 A simplified diagram of the parallel resonant test system is given in Fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.7 Parallel resonant test system

46
Con’t…
 An alternative system is the series resonance circuit.
 By resonating the circuit through a series reactor L at the
test frequency (50 Hz), harmonics are heavily
attenuated.
 A simplified diagram of the series resonance test system is
given in Fig. 6.8

Fig. 6.8 Series resonant test system

47
Con’t…
 Initial stage it was difficult to manufacture continuously variable high
voltage and high value reactors to be used in the series circuit and
therefore, indirect methods to achieve this objective were employed.

Initial Stage - Single transformer/reactor series

resonance circuit

 If N is the transformation ratio and L is the inductance on the low

voltage side of the transformer, then it is reflected with N 2L value on
the secondary side (load side) of the transformer.

48
Con’t…
 For certain setting of the reactor, the inductive reactance
may equal the capacitive reactance of the circuit, hence
resonance will take place.
 Thus, the reactive power requirement of the supply
becomes zero it has to supply only the losses of the
circuit.

Initial Stage - Single transformer/reactor series

resonance circuit

49
Con’t…
 However, the transformer has to carry the full load
current on the high voltage side. This is a disadvantage of
the method.
 The inductor are designed for high quality factors (Q)

Q = ωL / R. The feed transformer, therefore, injects the

losses of the circuit only.

Initial Stage - Single transformer/reactor series

resonance circuit

50
Con’t…
 It has now been possible to manufacture high voltage
continuously variable reactors 300 kV per unit using a new
technique with split iron core.
 The inductance of these inductors can be varied over a wide
range depending upon the capacitance of the load to produce
resonance.

Series resonance circuit

with variable h.t.
reactors (b) Equivalent
circuit of (a)

51
Con’t…
 Here R is usually of low value. After the resonance
condition is achieved, the output voltage can be increased
by increasing the input voltage.
 The feed transformers are rated for nominal current
ratings of the reactor.
 Under resonance, the output voltage will be,
 Where, V is supply voltage, since at resonance

52
 Resonant Transformers - typically used for cable and capacitor testing

L1, L2 leakage inductance of transformer

r1, r2 resistance of windings
L0 magnetizing inductance
R0 resistance due to core loss

Transformer Equivalent circuit

Series resonance if

• Current in the test object is very large and limited only by the resistance of the
circuit
• Voltage V0 over test object:

is the voltage multiplication factor over test object

under resonant conditions
Con’t…
Advantages of Resonant Circuits
 No high-power arcing and heavy current surges if the test
object fails, as the resonance is heavily disturbed by the
resulting short circuit
 Cascading is also possible for higher voltage
 Simple and compact test setup
 Pure sinusoidal output waveforms
 Less power requirements from the mains (5 to 10% of straight
circuit requirements)
 When testing SF6 switchgear, multiple breakdowns do not
result in high transients. Hence, no special protection against
transients is required
54
Series resonance transformer
CHAPTER 6
GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES
& CURRENTS

6.0 Introduction

6.1 Generation of High DC Voltages

6.2 Generation of High AC Voltages

6.3 Generation of Impulse Voltages

6.4 Generation of Impulse Currents

56
Introduction
 Disturbances of electric power transmission and
distribution systems caused by transient overvoltage,
 Lightning overvoltage
 Switching phenomena
 Lightning overvoltage originated by lightning strokes
hitting the phase wires of overhead lines or the bus
bars of outdoor substations.
 The amplitudes are very high, usually in the order of
1000 kV or more
 Every stroke may inject lightning currents up to about
100 kA
57
Introduction
 Each stroke is then followed by travelling waves,
whose amplitude is often limited by the maximum
insulation strength of the overhead line.
 The rate of voltage rise of such a travelling wave is
at its origin directly proportional to the steepness of
the lightning current, which may exceed 100 kA/μs,
 Lightning protection systems, surge arresters and
the different kinds of losses will damp and distort
the travelling waves.

58
Introduction
 With the increase in transmission voltages needed to fulfil the required
increase in transmitted powers, switching surges have become the governing
factor in the design of insulation for EHV and UHV systems. ™
 ™There is a great variety of events that would initiate a switching surge in a
power network. ™
 The switching operations of greatest relevance to insulation design can be
classified as follows:
 1. Energization of transmission lines and cables.
The following specific switching operations are some of the most common
in this category:
a. Energization of a line that is open circuited at the far end

b. Energization of a line that is terminated by an unloaded transformer

c. Energization of a line through the low-voltage side of a transformer

59
Cont..
 2. Reenergization of a line.
This means the energization of transmission line
carrying charges trapped by previous line
interruptions when high-speed reclosures are used.

 3. Load rejection.
-This is affected by a circuit breaker opening at the far
end of the line.
-This may also be followed by opening the line at the
sending end in what is called a line dropping operation.

60
Definitions
 An impulse voltage is a unidirectional voltage which, rises
rapidly to a maximum value and falls more or less rapidly to
zero.
 The maximum value is called the peak value of the impulse.
 A full impulse voltage is characterized by its peak value and its
two time intervals, the wave front and wave tail time intervals.
 The wave front time is specified as 1.25 times (t2 – t1)
 t2 is the time for the wave to reach to its 90% of the peak value
 t1 is the time to reach 10% of the peak value.
 Wave tail time is measured between the nominal starting point
t0 and the point on the wave tail where the voltage is 50% of
the peak value
 Wave tail time is expressed as (t3 – t0).
61
Con’t…

Fig. 6.9 Impulse Wave

62
Con’t…
 The standardized lightning impulse waves are represented by the
general equation

 Where  and  are constants of microsecond value

 The tolerances allowed in the front and tail durations are ±30% and
±20% respectively
 The tolerance allowed in the peak value is ±3%
 The standard lightning impulse wave has a front duration of 1.2 μs
and a wave tail duration of 50 μs, and is described as a 1.2/50 μs
wave.
 The definition of the front and tail is as described in the IEC 60060
standard
63
Con’t…
IMPULSE GENERATOR CIRCUITS
 Two simplified but more practical forms of impulse
generator circuits are shown in Fig. 6.10 (a) and (b).

Fig. 6.10 Simplified equivalent circuit of an impulse

generator

64
Con’t…
 The two circuits are widely used and differ only in the
position of the wave tail control resistance R2.
 In Fig. a, when R2 is on the load side of R1 the two
resistances form a potential divider which reduces the
output voltage.
 In Fig. b, when R2 is on the generator side of R1 this
particular loss of output voltage is absent.

65
Con’t…
 The impulse capacitor C1 is charged through a charging
resistance to a D.C voltage Vo
 And then discharged by flashing over the switching gap
with a pulse of suitable value.
 The desired impulse voltage appears across the load
capacitance C2.
 The value of the circuit elements determines the shape
of the output impulse voltage.

66
Con’t…
ANALYSIS OF CIRCUIT ‘a’
 The output voltage

 Where;

67
Con’t…
 Thefront wave time and the tail wave time
can be determined approximately

 The time for wave front

 The time for wave tail

68
Con’t…

ANALYSIS OF CIRCUIT ‘b’?

69
Con’t…
Multistage Impulse Generators
 The best way for generating voltage impulses of very
high amplitudes using a DC source of a moderate output
 A bank of capacitors are charged in parallel and then
discharged in series, as originally proposed by Marx in
1923
 A typical modification of a Marx circuit is as shown in
Fig. 6.11
 The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown
voltage of the gaps F is slightly higher than the charging
voltage V
 All capacitors are charged to the voltage V
70
Con’t…

Fig. 6.11 Multistage Impulse Generators Circuit

71
Con’t…
 When the impulse generator is to be discharged, the gaps
F are made to spark over simultaneously by some external
means.
 Thus all capacitors are connected in series and discharge
through the wave-shaping resistors Rd‘ and Re‘ into the
test object
 Multistage impulse generators are usually specified by
their total output voltage, the number of stages(n), and
the stored energy

72
Con’t…

 Single Stage Equivalent Circuit as shown;

73
6.4 Generation of Impulse Currents
Introduction
 Generation of impulse currents of the order of several
hundreds of kilo amperes finds applications in testing
lightning arresters.
 The waveshapes in common use are the double
exponential

74
Con’t…
 The impulse waveshape is defined according to IEC
recommendation.
 T1is the front duration and T2 is the time to half peak.
 According to IEC, the standard waves are 4/10 and 8/20
μs
 To produce the standard waveform, a typical circuit as
shown is normally used

75
Con’t…
 Voltage V when the current im through in the circuit

76
Problem 3
Figure below shows the design circuit of an impulse
current generator C represents a bank of capacitors
connected in parallel which are charged form a DC source
(25 kV). R represents the dynamic resistance of the test
object and L represent the air cored high current inductor.
Calculate the impulse current if C is 8F. Given front
time, tf = 8 μs, tail time, tt = 20 μs.

77
Solution
 Assuming the wave to have a time-to-half value of 20s
and time-to-front (t1) of 8s, the time-to-first half (t2)
cycle of the damped oscillatory wave will be 20s,
 Then

78
Cont..

79