1.

FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS ABOUT ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS

1.1 The current in Fig. 1P.1 has already reached a steady value when S is closed. Derive an
expression for the current through L after the closing of S.

1.2 If V=500 V, L=20 mH and R=30 Ω, calculate the voltage across the inductance 1 ms after
the switch S is closed in Fig. 1P.1.
1.3 Initially, the capacitor C1 in Fig. 1P.2 is charged to 100 kV; C2 is uncharged. The switch S is
closed and 40 µs later the gap G sparks over. What is the current in R2 and the voltage on C1
immediately after sparkover?

1.4 How much energy has been transferred to C2 from C1 at the time of gap sparkover? How
much has been spent in R1?
1.5 What is the maximum voltage attained by C2 and the frequency of the current that flows in
L, after the switch is closed in the circuit of Fig. 1P.3?

1.6 What other natural frequency could be produced by the components of Fig. 1P.3 if they
were configured differently?
1.7 A capacitor C charged to voltage V is discharged into an inductor L. What is the voltage on
C at the instant when its stored energy and that of the inductor are equal?
2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD OF SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
2.1 Using the method of partial fractions, evaluate the following Laplace transforms (obtain the
time function):
11
a.
𝑆 2 +5𝑠−24

7𝑠2 +4a2
b.
𝑠(𝑠2 +a2 )

2𝑠2 +13s+1
c.
𝑠3 +7s2 +6s
2.2 The transform of a certain voltage is given by:
1.9 𝑥 1011
𝑠 2 + 2.1𝑥105 s + 2x1011
Evaluate the transform and sketch its form with reasonable accuracy.
2.3 How much energy will be dissipated when the switch in the circuit in Fig. 2P.1 is closed.

The capacitor C1 in Fig. 2P.1 has an initial charge of 1.0 C; C2 is discharged. Calculate the
following:
a. The peak current
b. The current 200 µs after the switch closes
c. The ultimate energy stored in C2
d. The ultimate voltage on C1
2.4 If the resistor in Problem2.3 is replaced by an inductor with the same 60 Hz reactance,
calculate the following, once the switch is closed:
a. The instantaneous current
b. The peak current
c. The energy stored in the inductance 1 ms after the switch is closed
d. The energy stored in C1 at the same instant.
2.5 Show that if one capacitor is discharged into another through a resistor, the energy
dissipated in the resistor is independent of the value of the resistor.
2.6 Each phase of a 3-Phase capacitor bank is rated 60 MVA at 13.8/√3 kV. A second bank has
a rating of 30 MVA at 13.8/√3 kV. The two are to be parallel by momentarily connecting them
through a 100 Ω stainless steel resistor (one for each phase), which will be subsequently shorted
out. You are to design these resistor (determine the length and cross-sectional area of the wire
to be used) if the temperature rise of a resistor is not to exceed 200°C, when the switching
operation is made at a time when one capacitor is at positive peak voltage and the other at
negative peak voltage.

The characteristics of stainless steel are: density = 7.9 g/cm3 ; Specific heat = 0.5 J/g per °C;
resistivity = 72 µΩcm. Assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings during the switching
operation.
What will he be the weight of the resistor? What will be the peak current during the switching
operation?
2.7 Figure 2P.2 Shows the field coil of a machine. It is excited by closing switch S1 onto an 800
V d.c. bus. Determine the energy stored in the coil, and the energy already dissipated in it, 1 s after S1
is closed.
When the coil current has attained a steady value, S1 is opened and S2 is closed simultaneously.
What will be the voltage across S1 0.1 s later? How much energy will eventually be dissipated
in R2?

2.8. We are often required to design test circuits which will generate surges of specific
waveform. These are then used to apply surges to pieces of power equipment (transformers,
generators, reactors, etc.) we wish to test. Sometimes we wish to simulate the effect of a
lightnings surge, sometimes a switching surge.
Figure 2P.3 shows a basic form of impulse generator. When C1 has been charged and the gap
G is caused to spark over, an impulse voltage is generated at the output terminals A and B.
Without solving the equation of the circuit, compute a good estimate of the following when
the precharge voltage is 500 kV and the gap discharges.
a. The maximum current in R1
b. The maximum voltage across C2
c. The time when this voltage (b) is reached
d. The output voltage after 0.5 µs
e. The output voltage after 50 µs
2.9 R and L in Fig. 2P.4 represent the resistance and the inductance of the field winding of a
machine. The switch S has been closed and a steady direct current is flowing from the source
V.
When S is opened, an are is established between its contacts which develops a voltage of 400
V, opposing the flow of current. Plot the current after S opens.
3. SIMPLE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS
3.1 Viewed from the point of fault, a three-phase system can be represented by an ideal three-
phase, 13.8 kV (rms) generator, with a series impedance of (0.02 + j0.43) Ω/phase. The system
is solidly grounded. A fault-to-ground occurs on one phase when the instantaneous voltage is
3.5 kV and declining. Calculate the approximate value of the first and second pcaks of the fault
current.
Calculate approximately the maximum force/meter on the phase and ground buses at a point
where they run parallel, 20 cm apart.
3.2 Without formal analysis involving differential equations, determine the voltage Vc across
the capacitor in Fig. 3P.1. when

a. A step of voltage, V, is applied at the terminals A and B form an infinite bus

b. A ramp of current. I’t, is injected from a current source into the terminals A and B
3.3 Figure 3P.2 shows two capacitor banks, C1 and C2, in a substation. C1 is energized, but C2
is discharged. The three-phase, 60 Hz ratings of the banks are: C1, 5MVA; C2, 3MVA, on a
13,8 kV. The source has a short circuit rating of 20 kA rms at 13.8 kV. The inductance of the
loop between C1 and C2 represented by L2 is 30 µH.

Calculate the peak transient voltage that will appear on C2 and the peak transient current that
will flow in L1, if the switch S is closed at the peak of the voltage cycle. Point out any
assumptions you make
3.4 Figure 3P.3 represents one phase of a three-phase, 69 kV circuit, containing a source and a
capacitor bank C, which is rated at 15 MVA/phase. L = 60 µH.
Calculate:
a. The peak voltage that can be attained by C when the switch is closed and C has initial voltage
of +40 kV, recognizing that the closing can take place at any point in the cycle
b. The time it will take for C to reach this voltage
c. The peak current during the operation
d. The steady state rms current passing through the switch after the transient has subsided (any
practical circuit would contain some damping)
3.5 A time to ground fault occurs as indicated in Fig. 3P.4 close to the secondary terminals of
a 230/34,5 kV transformer. The transformer has a three-phase rating of 100 MVA; it has 0.1 pu
reactance on this base

Calculate:
a. The fault current
b. The time to peak of the transient recovery voltage when the circuit breaker opens to interrupt
the fault current. A value 12,7 nF can be assumed for the effective capacitance per phase of the
transformer secondary winding.
3.6 The capacitor C1 in Fig. P3.5 is initially charged to 𝑉𝐶1 (0); C, is uncharged. Show that when
the switch is closed, the voltage across C2 is of the form
 𝑉𝐶1 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑉𝐶1 (0){𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔1 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔2 𝑡}

Determine the constants A, 𝜔1, and 𝜔2 .

3.7 The circuit in Fig. 3P.6 represents one phase of a three-phase installation in which capacitors
can be connected to, or removed from, a 230 kV bus. The reactances are based on 250 MVA,
three phase.
The switch S1 has been closed for some time. The switch S2 is closed when the supply voltage
of this phase in 20° beyond its peak and C2 in completely discharged. Compute the lowest voltage
and the highest voltage that the point P attains during the transient disturbance that follows the
closing of S2.

3.8 A 138 kV/13.8kV, 20 MVA, three-phase transformer has a reactance of 10% and a
resistance of 0.4%. Calculate to a reasonably close approximation the peak fault current in the
low voltage winding, under the worst conditions, if a three-phase fault occurs at the low voltage
terminals. For the purpose of the calculation the impedance on the source can be considered
negligible.
If the fault current is interrupted by a circuit breaker on the high voltage side of the transformer,
and if the capacitance per phase of this winding is 5200 pF, determine the frequency of the
transient recovery voltage seen by the breaker.
3.9 Refer again to Problem 3.8. Let us now assume that the impedance of the 138 kV source is
not negligible and that is has the same X/R ratio as transformer itself. Let us further state that a
symmetrical fault on the 138 kV bus would develop a fault current of 18 kA rms.
Determine the frequency and relative magnitude of the transient recovery voltage of the circuit
breaker when it interrupts the fault described in Problem 3.2.
Assume that the stray capacitance on the source side of the breaker is 12,000 pF.
3.10 The circuit shown in Fig. 3P.7 is designed for “synthetically” testing circuit breakers, i.e.,
making a meaningful test on a breaker without a power system on large test generator. The
circuit breaker under test, S2, is initially closed. The test starts by closings S1 (this will probably
be some kind of triggered gap), which causes C1, which has been previously charged, to
discharge through S2 and the reactor 1… The contacts of S2 are opened soon after this current
starts to flow. S2 arcs until current zero, at which time, if interruption occurs, the circuit
automatically applies a transients recovery voltage across S2.
It is required to test a breaker with a peak current of 15 kA at 60 Hz, and then apply a TRV with
a peak of 20 kV at 900 Hz. What should he the values of C1, C2, and L, and to what initial
voltage should C1 be charged?

Make a sketch showing:

a. The current through S2
b. The voltage on C1 before and after current zero
c. The TRV
3.11 If the X/R ratio of the transformer in Problem 3.5 is 12, calculate the peak value of the fault
current if the fault occurs when the voltage is 70° past its peak.
3.12 C1 and L1 in Fig. 3P8 are oscillating; C2 and P2 are de-energized. The switch is closed
when 𝑉𝐶1 = 0 and I2 = 500 A.

Calculate:
a. Peak voltage reached on C2
b. Peak current reached in L2
c. Frequency of the current in L1
d. Maximum voltage on C1 prior to closing the switch
4. DAMPING
4.1 A 13.8 kV, 60 Hz single phase transformer takes a current of 2.8 A rms (assumed sinusoidal)
at a power factor 0.15 when energized on no load at its rated voltage. When disconnecting the
transformer under these conditions, a circuit breaker chops 2A.
Calculate the peak of the voltage transient that ensues due to the chop. The effective winding
capacitance is 2.5x10−9 F.
4.2 The switch S1 in Fig. P4.1 is closed first, followed 5ms later by the closing of switch S2.
Determine the current in each branch at the instant S2 closes.
Determine the current in L at this time if S1 and S2 are closed simultaneously.

4.3 Derive operational solutions for the voltage across C And the current through 1., after the
switches closed in Fig. P4.2.

4.4 Sections 4.5 of the text describes how resistors are sometimes used to modify recovery
voltages.
In the circuit shown in Fig. P4.3 a breaker with an opening resistor is clearing a 28,000 A
symmetrical fault. Its resistor is 800 Ω, the bus capacitance, 𝐶 = 4𝑥10R F. What will be the
peak TRV? If the resistor is in the circuit for two cycles, how much energy will it dissipate?
4.5 After the switch is closed in Fig. P4.4 determine the following:
a. The maximum energy ever stored in 1.
b. The time before current flows in C2
c. The voltage on C1 when current starts to flow in C2
d. The highest voltage appearing across C2
Use the curves of Figs. 4.4, 4.6, and 4.7.

4.6 A 138 kV substation is operating with a three-phase 90 MVAR capacitor bank on the bus.
A second identical hank (uncharged) is connected in parallel with the first by closing a switch.
The source reactance is 2.8 Ω at 60 Hz; the inductance of the circuit between the two banks is
40 µH. What frequencies would you expect to see in the transient current that would flow in
the switch?
If a resistor of 4.4 Ω was placed in series with the switch to reduce the inrush current, what
percent reduction would you expect in the first peak? I can be assumed that source and capacitor
banks have grounded neutrals.
4.7 An 8 MVAR, three-phase, 13.8 kV capacitor bank is to be switched against a similar 20
MVAR bank, the 20 MVAR is already energized, the 8 MVAR bank is initially uncharged. A
resistor is used in the connection to control the current and transient voltage. The inductance of
the loop between the two capacitor banks is 30 µH. What value should the resistor have if.
a. The peak current is not to exceed 10 kA
b. The peak voltage on either capacitor is not to exceed 10 kV regardless of the instant when
the switching occurs?
4.8 Figure P4.5shows a step-down transformer connecting a 69 kV and a 13.8 kV bus. The
transformer has 12% reactance and 1% resistance on a 30 MVA base. Its effective capacitance
on the L.V side is 11,000 pF. The impedance of the supply is negligible.
A fault on the L.V bus is interrupted by opening the circuit breaker (CB). What will be the peak
TRV of the circuit breaker? How soon after current interruption will ill occur? Assume a
symmetrical fault current. Do not waste time solving this problem formally. Use some
engineering judgment.

4.9 A load on a solidly grounded13.8 kV, three-phase bus takes 246kW at a lagging power
factor of 0.6. The load can be conveniently represented by a parallel combination of R and L.
A capacitor bank, which improves the power factor to 1.0, is connected in parallel with the load.
The load and power factor correcting capacitor are switched together, as a unit.
Calculate the peak voltage appearing across the load after it has been disconnected by opening
the switch. It may be assumed that the supply impedance is negligible.
4.10 Calculate the peak current that will flow after the switch S is closed in the above circuit,
Compute the value of the current 2 ms after S is close. Take care to determine exactly when the
rectifier becomes active. What fraction of the original stored energy is dissipated in the first 2
ms?

4.11 A 60 Hz, simple phase, 13,8 kV transformer has a no-load current of 3.5 ∠-83° A rms.
When it is disconnected from the system by opening the circuit breaker, it is found that the
transient voltage appearing across the transformer following current interruption is exactly
critically damped. What is the effective capacitance of the transformer?
For the purpose of this question the transformer can be treated as a parallel RLC circuit in which
the dissipation in the resistor represents the no-load losses.
4.12 Select a shunt resistor for the circuit breaker in Problem 3.11 that would reduce the
magnitude of the TRV for the fault described by 40 %.
4.13 A 7000 kVAR, 34,5 kV, solidly grounded capacitor bank, uncharged, is being, connected
to a similar bank of 10,000 kVAR which is already energized. The inductances between the
two banks is 40 µH. A 5Ω resistor is temporarily inserted in series with the switch to reduce
the inrush current. Determine the peak current with and without the resistor, assuming thar the
closing can occur when the voltage is at its peak.
How much energy will the resistor have to dissipate during such an operation?
11. MODELING POWER APPARATUS AND THE BEHAVIOR OF SUCH
EQUIPMENT UNDER TRANSIENT CONDITIONS
1.1 Calculate the ratio of the maximum to the minimum initial stress of a 3m, single layer
winding, whose α – 15. When subjected to a steep fronted surge of magnitude 800 kV.
If the coil has 200 turns. What will be the initial voltage across the insulation between the two
turs closest to the terminal?
Assume in both cases that the neutral is grounded.
1.2 A shunt reactor with a single layer winding has its neutral grounded.
The ratio (𝐶𝑔 /𝐶𝑟 ) 1/2 = 6 for the winding. A surge of step waveform with a magnitude of 750
kV is applied to the reactor. What is the maximum voltage you would expect to occur at any
point of the winding, following the arrival of the surge? What point on the winding has the
highest voltage?
1.3 A string of suspension insulators has 20 identical units. Each has a capacitance of 35𝑥1012 F
between cap and pin. The capacitance between each set of these metal fittings and the adjacent
ground, as represented by the tower, is 2𝑥10−12 F. When an a.c. voltage is applied across the
insulator string, what percentage of the total voltage will appear across:
a. The bottom insulator at the line end?
b. The top insulator where the string joins the tower?
1.4 A single layer coil has 50 turns. The capacitance to ground of each turn is 2.4 pF; the
capacitance between two adjacent turns is 370 pF.
The coil is being subjected to an impulse voltage test in which a step of 400 kV is applied
between a terminal and ground. The other terminal (the neutral) is floating. Determine the initial
transient voltage experienced by the neutral and estimate the voltage to which it may
subsequently oscillate.
1.5 A motor is supplied by a cable of 30 Ω surge impedance. The motor itself can has
represented by a parallel combination of L = 10 mH and C = 0.012 µF. A short circuit occurs
at a point on the cable some distance from the motor. When the instantaneous voltage is -3 kV.
Determine the initial rate-of-rise of the transient voltage (dV/dr) experienced by the motor as a
consequence of the fault.
1.6 A measurement on the isolated primary (13.8 kV) winding of a 1500 kVA, three-phase
transformer reveals that the capacitance is 3600 pF. The magnetizing current is 1.6% at a power
factor of 0.08. Device a suitable open circuit model for one phase of the primary winding,
assuming that it is normally connected in Y with the neutral grounded.
Determine the first negative polarity peak of the transient appearing across the transformer
when it is switched off with the voltage on positive polarity.