Semiconductors – Solids which are insulators at absolute zero , but allow

current to pass at normal temperature. Band gap is in between that of conductors

and insulators . The number of mobile electrons which are responsible for the
conduction can be increased by two ways ie, two types of conduction
mechanisms may be distinguished in semiconductors.
• There are two broad categories of semiconductors:
• Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Naturally have a moderate band gap. A small fraction of the
electrons in the valence band can be excited into the
conduction band. They can carry current.
• The “holes” these electrons leave in the valence band can also
carry current as other electrons in the valence band can be
excited into them.
• Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Have had impurities added in order to increase the amount of
current they can conduct. (impurities called dopants; process
called doping)
• The dopants can either provide extra electrons or provide extra
“holes”:
• A semiconductor doped to have extra electrons is an n-type
semiconductor (‘n’ is for ‘negative’)
• A semiconductor doped to have extra holes is a p-type
semiconductor (‘p’ is for ‘positive’)
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1. Intrinsic semiconduction :Semi conductors in their purest form are called intrinsic
semiconductors . Ex. Si, Ge , (belonging to group 14 ) . These elements in the pure state have
very low electrical conductivity. Their band gap is not very large . Under an applied
potential ,or on increasing the temperature electrons from valence band can be promoted to
conduction band .This explains the high thermal and electrical conductivity of metals . The
vacant electron levels due to this promotion of electrons is regarded as positive holes. Thus
electrons in the V.B & C.B will be free to move under a potential resulting conductivity. With
increase in temperature, more and more electrons get promoted to the conduction band . Thus
electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases with increase of temperature.
1. Extrinsic / impurity & defect semiconduction:

The conductivity of semiconductors can also be

increased by introducing a very low concentration of impurity. On adding
even traces of an element belonging to group 13 or 15 to Silicon or
Germanium , the electrical conductivity is greatly enhanced. Such
semiconductors are known as doped or extrinsic semiconductors. The size of
the dopant atom should be as close as possible to that of group 14 to cause
minimum amount of disruption in the lattice structure.
(i) n – type semiconduction : if a group 15 element like arsenic is added to
Germanium crystal , Only four of the outer valence electrons on each As
atom form covalent bonds with neighbouring Si atoms. At low temp. the
fifth electron is localized on As atom and form a discrete energy level just
below the empty conduction band However at normal temperature some of
the fifth electron on As are excited to the conduction band where they can
carry current. ( n type semi conduction )
• n-type semiconductors e.g. silicon (1s 2 2s 2 2p 2) is doped with
phosphorus (1s 2 2s 2 2p 3)
• In silicon (like diamond), the valence band is completely full and the
conduction band is completely empty.
• The phosphorus provides an additional band full of electrons that is
higher in energy than the valence band of silicon and closer to the
conduction band. Electrons in this donor band are more easily
excited into the conduction band (compared to electrons in the
valence band of silicon).

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(i) p- type semiconduction :

. In Ga doped Si, one of the Ga – Si bond must be deficient by one electron. Using band
theory , it is found that the energy level associated with single electron Ga – Si bond
forms a discrete level just above the V.B. Thus doping of Ga generates a series of
partially filled discrete orbitals just above the valence band. ( They are discrete because
there is only a very small amount of Ga & hence there is no interaction between Ga
atoms ). Only a small amount of energy is enough for the excitation of electrons from
V.B to the acceptor level. Excitation of electrons from V.B into these partially filled
orbitals, results + ve holes in the V.B, so that conduction is possible. Therefore SiGa
is a p type semi conductor.
• How does a p-type semiconductor work?
e.g. silicon (1s 2 2s 2 2p 2) is doped with aluminium
(1s 2 2s 2 2p 1)
• In silicon, the valence band is completely full and the
conduction band is completely empty.
• The aluminium provides an additional empty band that is
lower in energy than the conduction band of silicon.
Electrons in the valence band of silicon are more easily
excited into this acceptor band (compared to the
conduction band of silicon).

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Temperature dependence of conductance

There is a characteristic difference in the temperature dependence of

conductivity of the metals & semiconductors. Metallic conduction decreases with increasing
temperature. Electrons travelling through the solid, their progress are inhibited by scattering due to
vibrating nuclei. As the temperature is raised, there is more vibration , there fore more scattering of
electrons. Due to increased electron – phonon collisions conductivity gradually drops with rising
temperature.

For a semi conduction on the other hand , promotion of electrons into the conduction band , is
much easier at higher temperature & conductivity increases with temperature.

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The characteristic properties of metals :

Many of the characteristic physical properties of metals are consistant with

the band description given above . The most characteristic property of any
metal is high electrical conductivity . (explained earlier)

The band structure also explains why metals are ductile and malleable. Since
the delocalized electrons can immediately adjust to any deformation that
occurs in the overall crystal structure , the integrity and strength of the new
(deformed ) structure can be immediately restored.

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Finally the characteristic metallic lustre can be well understood in band theory. The
electronic transitions that can occur in a metal having a band only partially filled with
electrons . Absorption can take place over the entire visible spectrum. Thus electronic
transitions from low energy band to high energy band occur when photons of energy
hν, collide with the metal. However, metals do not just absorb photons , they re-
radiate them. Since metals are electrical conductors , absorption of electromagnetic
light , causes the relatively free valence electrons within the metallic structure to
oscillate at the frequency of the exciting radiation . This oscillation causes the metal
to re – radiate light of the same frequency as the incoming wave . This ability to re-
radiate photons accounts for the high reflectivity , and thus shininess of most metals .