Sampling

Arathi sivaram
Research scholar
DCMS, University of Calicut

Dr. Satheesh E.K

Registrar
University of Calicut
Universe, population and sample
Universe: All the
individuals/things/events/documents etc.
having designated set of specifications which a
study intends to cover.
Population: All the
individuals/things/events/documents etc.
confirming to the designated set of
specifications which the study in particular
covers.
Sample: Representative/miniature of population.
Universe, population and sample
Universe and population can refer to the same
thing and can be considered as synonym.
If you have data for all the members of
universe then your population is universe and
you are actually sampling from the universe.
For instance, you are doing research on bank
workers in kerala ( consider there are total 1
lakh bank workers ). Your universe is all the
bank workers In kerala.
If you have access to all the I lakh bank
workers in kerala where you can draw
your sample of 50 thousand workers, then
your universe and population are same.
If you have access to only 80 thousand
bank workers then, your universe is 1
lakh workers, your population is 80
thousand workers , and your required
sample is 50 thousand workers.
Population is the total number of
observations.
sample
A sample is an unbiased number of observations
taken from a population.
In research terms a sample is a group of
people ,objects, or items that are taken from a
larger population for measurement.
A sample is a part of the universe/population
which we select for the purpose of investigation.
A sample should exhibit the characteristics of the
universe/population, it should be a ‘microcos’, a
word which literally means “small universe”.
A sample is a subset of population units.
Essentials of a sample
Sample should possess the following
essential features;
Representativeness
Adequacy
Independence
Homogeneity
sampling
Sampling is simply the process of
learning about the population on the basis
of a sample drawn from it.
Sampling is a process which helps to
know the characteristics of the
universe/population by examining only
small part of it.
The main objective of sampling is to draw
inference about the population.
https://hotcubator.com.au/
Sampling frame
Sampling frame is a Complete list of all
the accessible target population elements.
In other words;
Sampling frame is a complete list of
everyone or everything that you want to
study. It is the list of all those within a
population who can be sampled eg;
patient files in hospital, students list in a
school.
https://www.amritaakhouri.com/
Sample design
A sample design is a definite plan or framework
for obtaining a sample from a given population.
It refers to the technique or procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for
the sample. Sample design helps to determine
the sample size. Hence, sample design is
determined before the collection of data.
Sample design refers to the technique used to
select sample units for measurement from the
population.
https://www.slideserve.com/
Principles of sampling
Principle/Law of statistical regularity
 This law points out that when a large
number of samples is taken at randomly
from the universe/ population, it is likely
to possess almost the same characteristics
as that of the population.
By random selection each and every item
of the population has an equal chance of
being selected.
Law of inertia of large numbers
 This law states that, larger the size of the
sample, more accurate the results are likely
to be. This is because large numbers are
more stable as compared to small ones.
 Thus, both the principles talk about the
sample size i.e. the larger it is, the larger
is the accuracy of the results obtained.
https://bbamantra.com
Probability or random sampling
Probability sampling is the technique in
which every element in the
population/universe has an equal chance
of being selected. In this kind of sampling
the possible inclusion of each population
element takes place by chance and is
attained through random selection.
Results attained through the probability
sampling method can be generalized.
Probability /random sampling methods
Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling is considered the easiest
and convenient method of probability sampling. 
To perform simple random sampling, the
researcher must ensure that all members of the
population are included in a master list, and the
samples are then selected randomly from this
master list.
it can be time consuming and tedious when
creating large samples. 
https://www.questionpro.com/
Systematic/quasi random sampling
 Systematic sampling method involves ordering
of the universe based on alphabetically,
numerically, geographically ,and any other basis.
 In systematic sampling, the first unit of sample is
selected randomly from the larger population and
the remaining units are selected according to a
predetermined pattern such as fixed periodic
interval. This interval is called sampling interval.
 In this method choose samples in a
systematic(i.e. orderly/logically) way from the
target population.
https://www.biosciencenotes.com/
Stratified sampling
Population is divided into two or more groups
called strata, based on some criterion, such as
geographical location, age , gender or income,
and subsamples are randomly selected from
each strata.
Under stratified sampling, samples within each
strata are homogeneous and heterogeneous
across strata.
Under stratified sampling population should not
divide into more than 6 stratas/groups, and are
usually organized by demographic features.
https://www.scribbr.com/
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is useful when sampling
frame/definite list- of population is not available.
Often used in the case of large population spread out
across a wide geographical area.
Under this sampling, population is divided into
already existing several clusters, each clusters are
representatives of the population. Then,
Required clusters are randomly selected. These
selected clusters are called primary sampling
units(PSU) Generally, all samples in the selected
clusters are examined.
Elements within the clusters are heterogeneous.
https://research-methodology.net
https://www.slideshare.net/
https://www.voxco.com/
Multistage cluster sampling
Multistage cluster sampling is a modified/
more complex form of cluster sampling.
Under multistage cluster sampling in the
first stage, initial clusters/primary
sampling units are randomly selected
from the whole population. Then in a
second stage, random sampling is applied
to pick up samples from the selected PSU.
https://towardsdatascience.com/
Area sampling
when cluster sampling is applied on
geographical basis then it is known as
area sampling.
A primary application of cluster sampling
involves area sampling, where the clusters
are countries, city blocks, or other well
defined geographic sections.
Non probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling
technique in which the researcher selects samples based
on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than
random selection.
Under non probability sampling all members of the
population do not have an equal chance of being selected.
Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory
studies like a pilot survey (deploying a survey to a smaller
sample compared to pre-determined sample size).
This sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of
the researchers. The results from the non probability
samples cannot be generalised.
Non probability sampling methods
Judgmental /purposive sampling
In the judgmental sampling method, researchers
select the samples purely based on the
researcher’s knowledge and professional
judgment. In other words, researchers choose
only those people who they deem fit to
participate in the research study.
It is not a scientific method of sampling
Under this method the pre conceived notions of a
researcher can influence the results. So samples
chosen under this method is highly biased.
https://dataz4s.com/
Convenience sampling
Under convenience sampling technique the
samples are selected from the population
only because they are conveniently
available to the researcher. Researchers
choose these samples just because they are
easily accessible, and the researcher did not
consider selecting a sample that represents
the entire population.
This sampling method is very easy, speedy
and cost effective.
Quota sampling
Similar to stratified sampling, population is
divided into subsets i.e quotas.
Then samples are picking out from each pre-
specified quotas non randomly/ judgmentally.
samples are selected based on the probability
proportionate to the distribution of a variable in
the population.
Under this sampling method the proportion of
samples for each category (such as female or
under 25 years old) will have the same proportion
assumed to exist in the population. 
For example, suppose that a group of researchers is going to
identify the correlation between gender and health status in a city:
they need a total of 1,000 respondents and know that the
proportion of females in the city population is 60 %. Using quota
sampling, the researchers can go anywhere in the city to collect
interviews until they reach the quota of 600 female respondents.
Sampling proceeds until these totals, or quotas, are reached.
Quota sampling is different from stratified sampling, because in a
stratified sample individuals within each stratum are selected at
random.
Quota sampling achieves a representative picking of samples, but
it isn't a random sample, because the sampling frame is unknown.
Therefore, the sample may not be representative of the
population.
https://www.ovationmr.com/
Snowball sampling
 in snowball sampling initial group of
respondents is selected .
After being interviewed these respondents
are asked to identify others who belong to
the target population.
Subsequent respondents are selected
based on the referrals.
https://www.questionpro.com/
Panel sampling
group of respondents are chosen and then
asking the group the same information
again for several times over a period of
time.
This process is mainly chosen for large
scale of sample or national wide studies.
Sampling bias
sampling bias is a bias in which a sample
is collected in such a way that some
members of the intended population have
a lower or higher sampling
probability than others. It results in
a biased sample.
 There are two causes for incorrect
inference resulting from data. They are;
i. Systematic bias
ii. Sampling errors
Systematic bias
Systematic bias occurs from the errors in
the sampling procedure. It cannot be
eliminated by increasing the size of the
samples. The following are the main
causes of systematic bias
i. Unsuitable sample frame.
ii. Faulty measuring device eg; error/bias
in questionnaire.
iii. Non-respondents.
Sampling errors
Sampling errors arise when a sample does not
represent the whole population and estimates are
derived from a sample rather than the population.
Sampling errors occur when numerical
parameters of an entire population are derived
from a sample of the entire population. Since the
whole population is not included in the sample,
the parameters derived from the sample differ
from those of the actual population.
Sampling errors can be controlled/decreased by
increasing the size of sample.
Types of sampling errors

Biased errors
These are the errors occurring due to the
biased or prejudice attitude of the informants,
enumerator or investigator in selecting,
estimating or measuring instruments. These
errors are known as biased errors or
cumulative errors or non compensating errors.
These errors do not decrease when the sample
size is increased . The size of the errors will
increase when the size of the sample is
enhanced.
Unbiased errors
Arises in the normal course of research.
Occurring due to the differences between
the items included in the sample and items
not included in the sample.
Also known as random sampling error.
It is a non cumulative error because
increasing the size of the sample can
decrease the chance of error.
Non sampling errors
All errors other than sampling error may
cause inaccuracy and bias in the research
results. It is called non sampling errors.
It can occur at every stage of planning and
execution of the survey.
Response differences, respondent inability
to recall information, differing respondent
interpretations etc can lead to making non
sampling errors.
Increase when the sample size is increase.