MOTIVATION

INTRODUCTION
 MOTIVATION
 Motivation is a human psychological
characteristic that affects a person’s
degree of commitment. It is the set
of forces that move a person towards
a goal. It deals with how behavior is
energized, how it is directed and how
it is sustained.
The underlying concept of motivation is
some drivingforce within individuals by
which they attempt to achievesome goal
in order to fulfil some need or expectation.
(Mullins)
 Mitchelldefines motivation as, ‘the
degree to whichan individual wants
and chooses to engage in certain
specified behaviours’.
 According to Fred Luthans,
"motivation is a process that starts
with a physiological or psychological
deficiency of a need, that activates
behavior or a drive that is aimed at a
goal or incentive."
PROCESS OF MOTIVATION
 Theabove definition highlighted
three elements – needs, drives
and goals.

 Needs are basic wants and

desires that exist in each
individual.
For instance, the basic needs
for an individual are food,
shelter etc. Similarly, the basic
needs for an organization are
land, labour, capital, and
machinery.
 Drives are the motives, that fulfill the
needs.
 For instance, the individual drive could
be hunger and thirst and organizational
drive could be to pay rent/lease or
purchase the land to own the premises.
     •  Goals are the means employed, to
generate the desired outcome.
 For instance, an organizational goal,
could be to increase the sales by 10%.
 Classification of Motivation
Theories

Based on the human needs, eminent thinkers

classified motivational theories under:

 Need theories or Content Theories

 Process theory
 Content Theories

The content theories are further classified as :

1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
2. Herzberg Two –Factor Theory
3. McClelland’s Achievement Theory
4. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
 One of the most popular explanations for human
motivation was developed by the psychologist,
Abraham Maslow and popularized during the early
1960s.

 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory argues that

human needs form a five-level hierarchy (see Figure
16.2).
 Maslow classified these needs into five groups:
physiological needs, need for security, social needs
(love and belongingness), self-esteem needs and self-
actualization needs.
 Physiological needs
 Physiological needs are the basic needs for
food, clothing and shelter. An organization
helps in satisfying the physiological needs of its
employees by offering them adequate wages.
According to Maslow’s theory, until these needs
are satisfied to the degree necessary to
maintain life, other needs will not motivate an
individual. Further, once these basic needs are
satisfied, they no longer motivate the
individual.
 Safety and security needs
 Once the physiological needs of an individual
are met, the individual aims to satisfy his safety
and security needs. These needs include the
need to be free from the fear of physical,
psychological or financial harm. Once the
individual feels reasonably safe and secure,
he/she turns his/her attention to developing
relationships with others.
 Social needs
 Social needs are also called belongingness
needs or need for love. They involve the desire
to affiliate with and be accepted by others.
Managers can satisfy this need of employees by
allowing social interaction between them by
means of appropriate office layout, coffee
breaks, and by providing them lunch and
recreational facilities.
 Esteem needs
This level represents the higher needs of
humans. They include the desire to have a
positive self-image and obtain respect and
recognition from others.
 An organization may appreciate an employee’s
performance by rewarding him with a pay hike,
a promotion, a well-furnished office, a car, a
personal assistant and other benefits such as
stock options, club memberships, etc. Such
measures on the part of an organization help to
satisfy the esteem needs of its employees.
 Self-actualization needs
 These comprise the highest level needs in Maslow’s
needs hierarchy theory. Self-actualization needs are
an individual’s need to realize his full potential through
continuous growth and self-development.
 Here, the individual is concerned with matters such as
the freedom to express his creativity and translate
innovative ideas into reality, pursue knowledge and
develop his talents in uncharted directions.

 Most management experts feel that employees’ need

for self-actualization can be satisfied by allowing them
to participate in decision-making and giving them the
power to shape their jobs.
 HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTORY THEORY
 In the late 1950s, Herzberg and his associates
conducted a study involving two hundred
engineers and accountants to find out the
extent of their satisfaction or dissatisfaction
with their jobs.

 The respondents in the study were asked to

recall instances when they were particularly
satisfied with their work and instances when
they were particularly dissatisfied with their
work. The factors which made them express
satisfaction were related to the content of their
job.
 According to the respondents, the aspects
of their job which gave them satisfaction
included having opportunities to achieve
something through their work, receiving
recognition from others for their work,
having opportunities for promotion and
advancement, and having a chance to
take on new responsibilities. Herzberg and
his associates call these job content
factors which contribute to the individual’s
satisfaction, motivators.
 On the other hand, feelings of discontent or
dissatisfaction were found to be associated with
factors related to the job context, or factors that affect
the immediate work environment but were not directly
related to the job itself.

 The respondents complained about poor supervision,

the inability to mingle with other people on the job,
uncomfortable working conditions, low pay and
benefits and job insecurity.

 These job context factors that lead to dissatisfaction

of individuals have been termed as hygiene factors by
Herzberg.
 Based on these results, Herzberg concluded
that the presence of good job content factors
leads to satisfaction, and the absence of good
job context factors leads to dissatisfaction.

 The findings of Herzberg and his associates

suggest that the best way to motivate workers
is to satisfy their need for job content factors.
Herzberg contended that hygiene factors were
important to prevent workers from feeling
dissatisfied but did not lead to their
satisfaction.
 HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTORY THEORY

Hygiene Factors or Motivators:

Maintenance
Factors:  Responsibilities
 Job security  Challenging Work
 Good pay  Recognition
 Working conditions  Achievement
 Type of Supervision
 Interpersonal relations
 McClelland’s needs theory
 David C. McClelland has contributed to the theories of
motivation by highlighting the importance of three basic
needs to understand motivation. They are achievement
needs, affiliation needs, and power needs.

1. Need for achievement

Achievement-motivated people thrive on pursuing
and attaining goals. People with a high need for
achievement have an intense desire for success. They
typically seek competitive situations in which they can
achieve results through their own efforts and which
allow them to obtain immediate feedback on how
they are doing. They take a realistic approach to risk.
People with high need for achievement are
characterized by restlessness and willingness to work
long hours. Individuals with high need for
achievement can be a valuable source of creativity
and innovative ideas in organizations.
 Need for achievement
 Achievement-motivated people thrive on pursuing and
attaining goals. People with a high need for
achievement have an intense desire for success.
 They typically seek competitive situations in which
they can achieve results through their own efforts and
which allow them to obtain immediate feedback on
how they are doing. They take a realistic approach to
risk.
 People with high need for achievement are
characterized by restlessness and willingness to work
long hours. Individuals with high need for
achievement can be a valuable source of creativity
and innovative ideas in organizations.
 Need for affiliation
 Need for affiliation refers to the desire to
maintain warm, friendly relationships with
others. Affiliation-motivated people are usually
friendly and like to socialize with others. They
suffer pain when they are rejected.

Need for power

The need for power refers to the desire to be
influential and to have an impact on a group.
Power-motivated individuals see almost every
situation as an opportunity to seize control or
dominate others.
 Alderfer’s ERG theory
 As opposed to Maslow’s five needs, Alderfer
suggested that needs can be classified into
three groups of core needs – existence,
relatedness, and growth (hence the theory is
referred to as ERG theory).

 Existence needs are concerned with

physiological well being of an individual. The
relatedness needs pertain to the desire to
establish and maintain interpersonal
relationships. The growth needs pertain to the
desire to be creative, make useful and
productive contributions and have opportunities
for personal development.
 Process Theories of Motivation
 Process theories of motivation attempt to
explain the thought processes of individuals
when they decide whether or not to behave in
a certain way.
 These motivation approaches outline the
factors to be considered if the workplace is to
be made productive.

 Process theories are sometimes called cognitive

theories due to their focus on the thought
processes associated with motivation.
 Process Theories of Motivation
 Process theories are categorized in two
categories:

1. Vroom’s Expectancy theory

2. Equity theory.
 Vroom’s Expectancy theory
 The expectancy theory of motivation was
originally proposed by Victor H. Vroom. He
contends that before putting in the effort to
perform at a given level, individuals consider
the following three issues:
 What is the probability that the performance
will be up to the required level?
 What is the probability that the performance
will lead to the desired outcomes?
 What is the value assigned by the individual to
the potential outcomes?
 The figure the basic components of the
expectancy theory. Their relationship is stated
in the following formula:

Valence * Expectancy * Instrumentality = Motivation

Instrumentality
Motivational Perceived Valence
Expectancy
force probability that Value of
Perceived
Force directing good expected
probability that
specific performance outcomes
effort will lead
behavioural will lead to to the
to good
alternatives desired individual
performance
ourcomes
(Rewards)
 Valence
 Valence is the motivational component that
refers to the preference of an individual for a
particular outcome. In simple words, it signifies
‘how much reward one wants.’

 The valence component helps an individual

assess the anticipated value of various
outcomes. If the possible reward or outcome of
the work is of interest to the individual
performing it, the valence component will be
high.
 The valence is set in the range of +1, through
0, to -1.

 When an individual has a strong desire for the

outcome, the valence is positive.

 On the other hand, if the individual wishes to

avoid the outcome, the valence is negative.

 However, if an individual is indifferent to the

outcome, the valence is zero.
 Expectancy
 Expectancy is the probability that certain efforts
will lead to the required performance.
 In other words, expectancy is the probability
(ranging from 0 to 1) that a particular action or
effort will lead to a particular outcome.
 For an individual to exert efforts towards a
goal, he must see a non-zero probability of
effort leading to that goal.
 In other words, all individuals will be motivated
to reach their goal only when they see some
connection between their effort and
performance.
 Instrumentality
 This refers to the probability that successful
performance will lead to certain outcomes.

 The major outcomes we consider are the

potential rewards such as incentives or
bonuses, or a good feeling of accomplishment.
“If I get a first class in MBA, how likely is it that
I’ll get a good job?” This example illustrates
instrumentality.
 Like effort-performance-expectancy,
performance-outcome-instrumentality can
range in magnitude from 0 to 1.
 Equity theory
 J. Stacy Adams is the proponent of the equity
(or inequity) theory.

 His theory of motivation focuses on people’s

sense of fairness or justice. The equity theory
refers to the subjective judgment of an
individual about the fairness of his reward,
relative to the inputs (which include many
factors such as effort, experience, education,
etc.), in comparison with the rewards of others.
 The essential aspects of the equity theory may
be shown in an equation as follows:

Inequity occurs when

 The inputs individuals consider in assessing the
ratio of their inputs and outcomes, relative to
those of others, may cover a broad range of
variables including educational background,
skills, experience, hours worked and
performance results.

 Outcomes can be pay, bonuses, appreciation,

amount of responsibility and type of work
assignments, and status symbols like parking
places, job titles, office space, furniture, etc.
 When individuals feel that their rewards are not
in accordance with their inputs, they may be
dissatisfied, reduce the quantity or quality of
output, or resign from the organization.

 When people perceive that they have been

equitably rewarded (output = input), they will
probably contribute the same level of
production output.

 When people perceive the rewards as being

more than equitable (output > input), they may
work harder.
 Motivational Practices
 In motivating people toward higher productivity
and better performance, an important step is to
identify what they want out of their jobs.
 To fulfill their demands and expectations,
various motivation practices/techniques are
used by managers.
 Some of the major motivational
Practices/techniques are:
1. Rewards
2. Job Design
3. Behaviour modification
4. Empowerment Participation
5. Goal setting
6. Motivating problem employees
7. Quality of work life
8. Participative Management
 Rewards
 Managers have found that job performance and
satisfaction can be improved by properly
administered rewards.
 Rewards may be defined as material or
psychological payoffs for the accomplishment
of tasks.

Rewards can be broadly categorized into:

1. Extrinsic rewards
2. Intrinsic rewards.
 Extrinsic rewards
Extrinsic rewards are pay-offs granted by
others. They include money, perks and
amenities, promotion, recognition, status
symbols, and praise.

Intrinsic (job content) rewards

Intrinsic (job content) rewards are self-granted
and internally experienced pay-offs. Individuals
prefer intrinsic rewards such as satisfaction
from performing challenging and interesting
jobs.
 Types of Rewards
 Membership & Seniority based rewards
 Job Status-based rewards
 Competency-based rewards
 Performance-based rewards:
a. ESOPS(Employee Stock Option Schemes)
b. Team rewards
c. Individual rewards
 JOB DESIGN
 The process of assigning tasks to a job,
including interdependency of those tasks
with other jobs is called Job Design.
 The way tasks & responsibilities are
grouped can affect productivity and costs.
 Factors affecting Job Design
1. Organizational Factors- task
characterisitics, flow of work, ergonomics
( designing & shaping jobs to fit physical
abilities & characterisitcs of individuals),
work practices.
2. Environmental Factors
3. Behavioural factors
Job Design Approaches/Techniques
 There are five popular approaches:
 1. Job Rotation
 2. Job Enlargement
 3. Job Enrichment
 4. Job engineering
 5. Socio-technical systems
 Job Enrichment
 It means adding a few more motivators to a
job to make it more rewarding. To be specific,
a job is enriched when the nature of job is
exciting, challenging and creative or gives the
job holder more decision making, planning and
controlling powers.
Characteristics of an Enriched Job
 Behaviour modification
 OB Modification or OB Mod uses positive
reinforcement to encourage desirable
behaviours in employees.

 Behaviour modification is based on the law

of effect. According to this law, the
likelihood that the behaviour will be
repeated depends on its consequences.
 Participation
 The right kind of participation ensures an increase in
the motivation and knowledge levels which contribute
to the success of an enterprise.
 Participation allows an individual to satisfy his or her
need for esteem (from self and from others). It
gratifies the need for affiliation.
 Above all, it gives people a sense of accomplishment
and a chance for advancement.

 MBO is one of the most popular and modern method

of motivating employees at all levels for better
performance, since it ensures participation and
freedom in setting goals and achieving them.
 Job Enrichment
 A modern approach to motivation is job enrichment.

 In job enrichment, the attempt is to build a higher

sense of challenge and achievement in jobs.

 A job may be enriched in the following ways:

1. Allowing workers to make independent decisions on
issues like work methods, sequence and pace or the
acceptance or rejection of materials

2. Encouraging involvement and participation of

employees and interaction between workers

3. Making workers feel personally responsible for their

tasks
 Job Enrichment
4.Ensuring that workers get to know how their
tasks contribute to the finished product and the
welfare of the enterprise

5.Giving people feedback on their job

performance