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THE
ENDOCRIN
E SYSTEM
Circulating or local hormones of the endocrine
system contribute to homeostasis by regulating the
activity and growth of target cells in your body.
Hormones also regulate your metabolism.

ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY
What is
Endocrine
Gland?
The endocrine system is made up of glands and the hormones they secrete. Although the
endocrine glands are the primary hormone producers, the brain, heart, lungs, liver, skin,
thymus, gastrointestinal mucosa, and placenta also produce and release hormones.

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The Endocrine System
The endocrine system maintains homeostasis by releasing chemicals
called hormones and it controls prolonged or continuous process
such as growth and development, reproduction, and metabolism.

• Second messenger system of the body

• Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are released into the blood
• Hormones control several major processes
• Reproduction
• Growth and development
• Mobilization of body defenses
• Maintenance of much of homeostasis
• Regulation of metabolism

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Hormones
A hormone is a chemical transmitter. It is
released in small amounts from glands, and is
transported in the bloodstream to target organs
or other cells. Hormones are chemical
messengers, transferring information and
instructions from one set of cells to another.

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Hormones regulate growth, development, mood, tissue
function, metabolism, and sexual function.

Hyposecretion or hypersecretion of any hormone can be harmful

to the body. Controlling the production of hormones can treat
many hormonal disorders in the body.

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 The endocrine system and nervous system work together to help maintain
homeostasis (balance). The hypothalamus is a collection of specialized cells
located in the brain, and is the primary link between the two systems. It produces
chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions of the pituitary
gland.

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Functions of Endocrine System
1. Controls homeostasis
2. Maintains water balance
3. Controls uterine contractions
4. Controls milk production
5. Regulates ions (calcium, sodium, potassium)
6. Regulates metabolism and growth
7. Regulates heart rate and blood pressure
8. Monitors blood glucose levels
9. Aids the immune system
10. Reproductive functions

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 Overview of the Endocrine System: Comparison
of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems

• Endocrine System Nervous System

– Chemical signals only
– Slower to respond and stop
– Hormones go everywhere
– Adapts relatively slowly
– Sometimes widespread effects
- Chemical and electrical signals
- Responds and stops quickly
- Targets specific organ
- Adapts quickly
- Usually local effects

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Location of Major Endocrine Organs

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PITUITARY GLAND
Pituitary gland is a round organ about the size of a pea (~1 cm
in diameter), located behind the bridge of the nose at the base of
the brain
Secretes 9 different hormones, which affect many different areas
of the body, including:
• Growth
• Blood pressure
• Regulation of Pregnancy
• Breast milk production
• Sex organ functions in both men and women
• Thyroid gland function
• Metabolism
• Water regulation in the body (kidneys)
• Temperature regulation

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 A Few Pituitary Hormones
HORMONE FUNCTIONS
Growth Hormone (GH) To increase body size during childhood
and adolescence; to maintain body size
during adulthood

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) To stimulate the thyroid to produce

thyroxin

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Regulate puberty, development, and

reproductive processes

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Stimulates the production of estrogen and

testosterone

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PINIAL GLAND
The pineal gland is pine-cone-shaped and only about
1 cm in diameter.

• Found on the third ventricle of the brain

• Secretes melatonin
• Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
• May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated functions

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THYROID GLAND Hyoid bone

The thyroid gland plays a vital role in Superior

thyroid artery
metabolism and regulates the body’s Thyroid cartilage
metabolic processes. of larynx Internal
jugular vein
Superior
 Found at the base of the throat thyroid vein
Cricoid cartilage
 Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus Common
carotid artery
of larynx

Left lobe of
 Produces two hormones Right lobe of
thyroid gland
thyroid gland

 Thyroid hormone Middle thyroid vein

Isthmus of
thyroid gland
 Calcitonin Inferior
thyroid artery
Thyroid Hormone Thyrocervical trunk
Inferior
Major metabolic hormone thyroid
Trachea veins
Composed of two active iodine-containing
hormones Outline of clavicle

Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid

Outline of sternum
follicles
Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at Location and anatomy of the thyroid gland

target tissues Group 4

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Calcitonin
influences bone and calcium metabolism; maintains a
homeostasis of calcium in the blood plasma

 Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its

deposition on bone
 Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
 Produced by C (parafollicular) cells

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PARATHYROID GLANDS

Function is to control metabolism of calcium

Necessary for normal nerve and muscle function,
blood clotting, healthy bones and teeth

Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid Left lobe of

Secrete parathyroid hormone thyroid gland

Stimulate osterclasts to remove calcium from bone

Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more Parathyroid
calcium glands

Raise calcium levels in the blood

They secrete parathyroid (PTH) which plays a role in the Posterior view of the
metabolism of phosphorus. Too little results in cramping; thyroid gland showing
too much results in osteoporosis or kidney stones. the parathyroid glands.

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ADRENAL GLANDS
The triangular-shaped adrenal glands are located on the
top of each kidney. The inside is called the medulla and
the outside layer is called the cortex.
Hormones released are cortisone and
adrenaline
Function of cortisone is to regulate Right superior
adrenal arteries Right and left inferior
carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism Celiac trunk
phrenic arteries

promotes conversion of fats and Right adrenal

proteins to glucose gland
Left adrenal gland

Right middle
adrenal artery Left middle
Function of adrenaline is to raise blood adrenal artery

sugar levels and increases heartbeat and Right inferior

adrenal artery
Left inferior
adrenal arteries
breathing rates Right renal artery Left adrenal vein
Left renal artery
Right renal vein
Left renal vein
• Two glands Superior mesenteric
artery
• Cortex – outer glandular region in three Abdominal aorta
layers Inferior vena cava

• Medulla – inner neural tissue region A superficial view of the left

kidney and adrenal gland

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Capsule
Cortex
Medulla

An adrenal gland in
section

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 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
• Sex hormones
• Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
• Androgens (male) and some estrogen (female)

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

• Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)

• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
• These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term
stress

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• Epinephrine is also called adrenalin. It elevates systolic blood
pressure, increases heart rate and cardiac output, speeds up the
release of glucose from the liver, giving a spurt of energy,
dilates the bronchial tubes and relaxes airways, and dilates the
pupils to see more clearly. It is often used to counteract an
allergic reaction.

• Norepinephrine, like epinephrine, is released when the

body is under stress. It creates the underlying
influence in the fight or flight response. As a drug,
however, it actually triggers a drop in heart rate.

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THYMUS
The thymus gland has two lobes, and is part of the
lymphatic system. It is a ductless gland, and secretes
thymosin. This is necessary for the Thymus’ normal
production of T cells for the immune system.

• Located posterior to the sternum

• Largest in infants and children
• Produces thymosin
• Matures some types of white blood cells
• Important in developing the immune system

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PANCREAS
The pancreas is a gland organ. It is located in the
abdomen. It is part of the digestive system and produces
insulin and other important enzymes and hormones that
help break down foods.
- Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue

- Functions:
 regulates blood glucose levels
 after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is
secreted
 extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen
• The Pancreas
• Lies between:
• Inferior border of stomach
• And proximal portion of small intestine
• Contains exocrine and endocrine cells
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• Exocrine Pancreas
• Consists of clusters of gland cells called pancreatic acini and
their attached ducts
• Takes up roughly 99 percent of pancreatic volume
• Gland and duct cells secrete alkaline, enzyme-rich fluid
• That reaches the lumen of the digestive tract through a
network of secretory ducts

• Endocrine Pancreas
• Consists of cells that form clusters known as pancreatic
islets, or islets of Langerhans
1. Alpha cells produce glucagon
2. Beta cells produce insulin
3. Delta cells produce peptide hormone identical to GH–
IH
4. F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
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 Pancreatic Body of Lobule Tail
Common duct pancreas
bile duct
Accessory
pancreatic
duct
Head of
pancreas

Small
intestine
(duodenum)

The gross anatomy of

the pancreas

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HORMONES OF THE OVARIES

• Progesterone
• Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
• Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus

The ovaries produce several estrogen hormones

and progesterone. These hormones prepare the
uterus for pregnancy, promote the development of
mammary glands, play a role in sex drive, and
develop secondary sex characteristics in the
female.
Estrogen is essential for the growth, development, and
maintenance of female sex organs.

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HORMONES OF THE TESTES
The testes produce the male sex hormone called
testosterone. It is essential for normal growth
and development of the male sex organs.
Testosterone is responsible for the erection of
the penis.

• Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-producing

• Produce several androgens
• Testosterone is the most important androgen
• Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
• Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
• Required for sperm cell production

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 3 COMMON
DISEASES/DISORDERS
1. Gigantism/ Dwarfism

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Gigantism is a rare endocrine disorder caused by unusually high growth hormone levels found during
childhood and adolescence before the growth plates in the bones have closed. The excessive amount of
growth hormone accelerates the growth of muscle, bones and connective tissue leading to an abnormally
increased height as well as a number of additional soft tissue changes. When left untreated or
uncontrolled, some individuals suffering from gigantism have grown in excess of eight feet (2.43 m) tall.
The most famous example is that of Robert Wadlow, the tallest person in history at 8ft 11 in tall (2.71 m).

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What causes gigantism?
Gigantism is usually caused by a non-cancerous tumour in the pituitary gland (called a benign adenoma) that produces too
much growth hormone.
 
Pituitary tumours can be small in size (micro-adenoma) or large (macro-adenoma). However, in gigantism, they are frequently
large and invade nearby brain tissue. The size of the adenoma directly affects the signs and symptoms experienced by the
individual (see below).
 
What are the signs and symptoms of gigantism?
The signs and symptoms of gigantism are usually due to the excessive amount of growth hormone production and sometimes
due to the pressure that larger adenomas may have within or in the brain areas close to the pituitary gland.
 
The excessive amount of growth hormone can lead to:
tall stature, above the expected average for their age.
coarse facial features such as prominent foreheads and jaws
large hands and feet with thickening of the fingers and toes
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 3 COMMON
2. Goiter DISEASES/DISORDERS

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A goiter is an enlarged thyroid gland. The thyroid gland, located in the front of your neck, makes
thyroid hormones. When your thyroid gland is enlarged, it can produce too much, too little, or
just enough thyroid hormone. The most common cause of goiter outside of the United States is a
lack of iodine in the diet. Iodine is a substance in food (iodized salt and seafood) that the thyroid
uses to make thyroid hormones. However, a lack of iodine is not common in the United States
because iodine is added to salt and many foods.

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 3 COMMON
3. Diabetes DISEASES/DISORDERS

Diabetes is a condition in which the pancreas, a gland controlled by the endocrine

system, does not produce enough insulin or when the body is unable to properly
use insulin.

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WAYS TO CARE FOR OUR ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
 First of all, eat a healthy diet so as to maintain a healthy weight and balanced
chemical secretions from the endocrine system. Eating a balanced diet can help you
avoid many problems that may manifest as sleep issues, unhealthy amounts of weight
gain or weight loss, fatigue, moodiness, hair loss, focus problems, a low libido and
blood sugar spikes.
 Be aware of your family history to keep an eye on your endocrine system to check for
endocrine disorders such as diabetes or hypothyroidism so that preventive measures
can be taken.
 It is best advised to avoid junk food as it won’t do any good to your body. Excess
amounts of sugar, alcohol, and even excess caffeine all weaken the liver and the
adrenal glands causing unhealthy hormone function.

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 Dairy products contain several natural hormones which may not do any good
when combined with your own. So avoiding their prolonged use can be
beneficial.
 Good rest is the key element of a healthy endocrine system. Rest is essential for
the hormones in your body to function naturally; lack of rest may lead to stress,
weight gain, and other serious health issues.
 In addition to all these, keeping your body fit with regular exercise is really
helpful. Choosing the right exercise options also matters in that it will keep
you going without any boredom while targeting your key trouble spots.

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Video slide

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Thank You For
Listening!
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