CELL AND ITS FUNCTIONS

The cell and its Function

• All living things are composed of cells.

• Cells are the basic unit of structure and
functions of living things.
 Types of cells
• Prokaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic Cells
• Believed to be the first
cells to evolve.
• Lack a membrane
bound nucleus and
organelles.
• Genetic material is
naked in the cytoplasm
• Ribosomes are only
organelle.
• Http.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells.html
 The Eukaryotic Cell
The Beginnings
•Robert Hooke was the first person to observe cells in
1665.
•He looked at thin slices of cork under a very simple
microscope.
•The cork appeared as little boxes which he called cells.
•In 1883 MathiasSchleiden and Theodor Schwann
proposed that all plants and animals were composed of
cells which were the basic building blocks of
life.Nucleus was discovered by Robert brown.
•In 1855 Rudolf Virchow stated that new cells arise from
the division of pre-existing cells and that chemical
reactions needed for life occurred inside the cell.
•All this work led to the formation of the cell theory
 Eukaryotic Animal Cell
• Eukaryotic means “true nucleus”
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus which contains the
DNA.
• Eukaryotic animal cells are surrounded by a cell
membrane.
• Inside is the jelly like substance called cytoplasm.
• Contained in the cytoplasm is the nucleus and other
organelles)
• The other cell organelles include the endoplasmic
reticulum,(rough & smooth) mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, ribosomes, lysosomes, centrioles, cilia,
nucleolus.
 Organization of cell
• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Nucleus
 protoplasm
• 5 basic substances:
• Water-70-80%
• Electrolytes
• Protiens-10-20%
• Lipids-2%
• Carbohydrates-1%
 protiens

structural globular

Fibrillar-cytoskeleton Enzymes or adherent to cell membrane

 Plasma (cell surface)
membrane
STRUCTURE
• This is the boundary between
the cell cytoplasm & the
environment
• Is partially permeable
• Made up 55% protein & 25%
phospholipids with the
remaining 13% cholesterol,
2%other lipids ,3%glycoprotein
& glyolipids
FUNCTION
• Controls movement of
substances in & out of the
cell
• Forms a recognition site
so that the body’s
immune system can
recognize its own cells
• Acts as a receptor site for
the attachment of specific
hormones and
neurotransmitters.
 membrane % protein % lipid %carbohydrate 
myelin  18  79  3 
human RBC   49  43  8 
mitochondrial
inner membrane 79  24  0
 Cell membrane

Bilayer lipid layer protiens carbohydrates

phospholipid cholestrol lipoprotiens glycoprotiens glcoprotiens glycolipids

 The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma
membrane.Different kinds of cell membrane models have been proposed,
and one of the most useful is the Fluid-mosaic model. In this model the
membrane is seen as a bilayer of phospholipids in which protein molecules
are embedded.

SINGER&GARTH

An illustration of the Fluid

mosaic model
 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
• The plasma membrane is described to be fluid
because of its hydrophobic integral components
such as lipids and membrane proteins that
move laterally or sideways throughout the
membrane. That means the membrane is not
solid, but more like a ‘fluid'.
• The membrane is depicted as mosaic
because like a mosaic it is made up of
many different parts. The plasma
membrane is composed of different kinds
of macromolecules, such as integral
proteins, peripheral proteins,
glycoproteins, phospholipids, glycolipids,
and in some cases cholesterol,
lipoproteins
 Membrane Movement and
Cholesterol
• Most of the lipids and some proteins can drift
laterally in the plane of the membrane, but
rarely flip-flop from one layer to the other.
• Cholesterol is wedged between
phospholipids molecules in the plasma
membrane of animals cells. It restrains the
movement of the phospholipids in warm
temps. and maintains fluidity by preventing
tight packing at cold temps.
 protiens
• Peripheral
extrinsic
intrinsic
Transmembrane
channel
carrier
pumps
receptors
Protein Functions
   
Channels/pores- A channel in the cell's plasma membrane. This channel
is made up of certain proteins whose function is to control the movement
                     
of food                     
proteins.
and water into the cell. These channels are made up of certain
Cytosol

Cytoplasm refers to the jelly-like material with organelles in

it.
If the organelles were removed, the soluble part that would
be left is called the cytosol. It consists mainly of water with
dissolved substances such as amino acids in it.
Nucleus- The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It is the largest
organelle in the cell and it contains the DNA of the cell. The DNA of all
cells is made up of chromosomes.
 
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) contains all the information for cells to
live, perform their functions and reproduce. 

Inside the nucleus is another organelle called the nucleolus. The

nucleolus is responsible for making ribosomes.

The circles on the surface of the nucleus are the nuclear pores. These are
where ribosomes, and other materials move in and out of the cell.
 Nucleus, Nucleolus &
STRUCTURE
Nuclear envelope
• Largest organelle in the cell (10um
diameter) FUNCTION
• Surrounded by a nuclear
membrane / envelope • Acts as the control centre of
• Double membrane – outer is
continuous with the ER the cell through the production
• Nuclear pores in the membrane of mRNA and protein synthesis
allow the passage of large • Retains the genetic material in
molecules in & out (eg the cell in the form of DNA /
messengerRNA)
• Material inside the nucleus is called
chromosomes
nucleoplasm – this contains • Manufactures ribosomal RNA
chromatin which makes up the DNA (rRNA) & ribosomes
of the cell – in non-dividing cells it is
spread out and during cell division it • Starts the process of cell
condenses to form the division
chromosomes
• A spherical structure called the
nucleolus is found in the nucleus –
this makes ribosomal RNA and
assembles the ribosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- It is a network of membranes
throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. There are two types of ER.
When ribosomes are attached it is called rough ER and smooth ER
when there are no ribosomes attached. 
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is where most protein synthesis
occurs in the cell. The function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is
to synthesize lipids in the cell. The smooth ER is also helps in the
detoxification of harmful substances in the cell.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
STRUCTURE
• Complex system of sheet like
double membranes continuous
with the nuclear membrane
• Fluid filled spaces/sacs
between the membranes
called CISTERNAE which
allow materials to be
transported through cell
• Two types of ER –
– smooth – has no ribosomes
attached (RER)
– rough – has ribosomes
attached (SER)
FUNCTION
• Forms an extensive transport
system
• Site of protein synthesis
(Rough ER)
• Site of lipid, steroid and
carbohydrate synthesis
(smooth ER)
• Stores and transports these
materials.
• Detoxification of harmful subs.
Mitochondria have:
an outer membrane that encloses the entire structure
•an inner membrane that encloses a fluid-filled matrix

•between the two is the intermembrane space

•the inner membrane is elaborately folded with shelflike cristae projecting

into the matrix.
 Mitochondria
STRUCTURE
• Relatively large organelle
• FUNCTION
Rod/sausage shaped – 1um –
5um
• Have a double membrane • Site of aerobic respiration (Krebs
– The outer controls the entry & cycle & oxidative phosphorylation)
exit of materials • Responsible for the production of
– Inner has many folds called energy rich ATP molecules
cristae • The numbers of mitochondria
• Surface of each crista is covered reflect the metabolic activity of the
with stalked particles where ATP cell – so large numbers are found
is made in muscle and liver cells
• Mitochondria are filled with a jelly
like matrix
• The matrix contains proteins,
lipids, ribosomes and loops of
DNA
• Mitochondria can replicate
themselves when the cell divides
Golgi complex- It is organelle in the cell that is
responsible for sorting and correctly shipping the
proteins produced in the ER. 

Just like our postal packages which should have a

correct shipping address, the proteins produced in

 
the ER, should be correctly sent to their respective
address. 

In the cell, shipping and sorting done by the Golgi

complex. It is a very important step in protein
synthesis.
                                                   

If the Golgi complex makes a mistake in shipping

the proteins to the right address, certain functions in
                                        
the cell may stop. 
 Golgi Apparatus
STRUCTURE
• Formed from small pieces of
rough ER which form small
vesicles which join to make a
Golgi body
• Chemicals made in the ER
collect in the Golgi body where
they are modified
• Small vesicles can then be
‘pinched’ off the Golgi body
carrying new chemicals away
which are secreted when the
vesicle reaches the cell
membrane
• Some of the vesicles become
lysosomes
FUNCTION
• Assembling glycoproteins
(such as mucin) by combining
carbohydrate and protein
• Transporting and storing lipids
• Formation of lysosomes
• Producing digestive enzymes
• Secretes carbohydrates which
are used in the formation of
plant cell walls and in insect
cuticles
 Ribosomes
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
• Small dense structures found • Synthesize proteins
in huge numbers. • Synthesize enzymes
• Can be attached to the rough
ER of floating in the cytoplasm.
• Are about 20 – 25 nm in
diameter in eukaryotic cells
and slightly smaller in
prokaryotic cells
• (80s type – prokaryotic)
• (70s type – eukaryotic)
• Made up from two sub units
Ribosomes- Organelles that help in the synthesis of proteins. Ribosomes
are made up of two parts, called subunits. 
They get their names from their size. One unit is larger than than the
other so they are called large and small subunits. 

Both these subunits are necessary for protein synthesis in the cell. When
the two units are docked together with a special information unit called
messenger RNA, they make proteins. 

Some ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, but most are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. While attached to the ER, ribosomes make
proteins that the cell needs and also ones to be exported from the cell for
work elsewhere in the body.
 Lysosomes
STRUCTURE
• Small vacuoles formed when
small pieces of Golgi body are
pinched off
• Contain hydrolytic enzymes
which digest materials in the
cell
FUNCTION
• Release enzymes which
destroy worn out organelles
• Digest material taken into the
cell (eg white blood cells which
have engulfed a bacterium) –
phagocytosis
• Release enzymes to the
outside of the cell which digest
material around the cell –
exocytosis
• Completely break down cells
after they have died – autolysis
Lysosomes function as the cell's recycling compartment.

Lysosomes receive cellular and endocytosed proteins and

lipids that need digesting. The metabolites that result are
transported either by vesicles or directly across the
membrane.
                      
Steps in lysomal formation

(1) The ER and Golgi apparatus make a lysosome

(2) (2) The lysosome fuses with a digestive vacuole

(3) Activated acid

(3) hydrolases digest the contents

 CENTRIOLES
(not found in plant cells)
• Two short bundles of hollow cylinders
(microtubules) positioned at right angles to each
other
• Found just outside the nucleus in a clear area of
cytoplasm called the centrosome
• Wall of each centriole is made of 9 triplets of
tubes arranged at an angle
• During cell division they migrate to opposite
poles to produce the spindle – which helps to
move the chromosomes during cell division
Centrioles
• Found only in animal
cells.
• Self-replicating
• Made of bundles of
microtubules.
• Help in organizing cell
division.
• Http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animals/animas/c
entrioles.html
•cilia are thread-like projections of certain cells that beat in a regular
fashion to create currents that sweep materials along;

                                          
 Cilia
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
• 3-10 um in length, 0.2um • To move an entire
in diameter organism (eg in
• Made of rings of 9 pairs paramecium it propels it
of microtubules through the water)
• Have basal body • To move material within
embedded in cytoplasm an organism ( eg cilia in
• Rest extends from basal the lining of the
body respiratory tract)
• Only a few types of cell
possess cilia
Cilia and Flagella
• External appendages
from the cell
membrane that aid in
locomotion of the cell.
• Cilia also help to
move substance past
the membrane.
• Http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animals/ciliaandfl
agella.html
Flagella may extend to the rear of a cell and push it forward by snakelike
wriggling, or stick out in front and draw it along.

We humans possess both flagella and cilia. Each sperm cell is propelled
by a trailing flagellum that accelerates the little torpedo forward in its
quest to fertilize an egg.
 Microtubules are made of the protein tubulin and
provide support and mobility for cellular activities. They
are found in the spindle apparatus (which guides the
movement of chromosomes during cell division) and in
flagella and cilia (described later in this list), which
project from the plasma membrane to provide motility to
the cell.
Intermediate filaments help support the shape of the cell.
Microfilaments are made of the protein actin and are
involved in cell motility. They are found in almost every
cell, but are predominant in muscle cells and in cells that
move by changing shape, such as phagocytes (white
blood cells that scour the body for bacteria and other
foreign invaders).
 CELL JUNCTIONS
• The plasma membranes of adjacent cells
are usually separated by extracellular
fluids that allow transport of nutrients and
wastes to and from the bloodstream. In
certain tissues, however, the membranes
of adjacent cells may join and form a
junction. Three kinds of cell junctions are
recognized, as follows
 Desmosomes are protein attachments between adjacent cells.
Inside the plasma membrane, a desmosome bears a disk-
shaped structure from which protein fibers extend into the
cytoplasm. Desmosomes act like spot welds to hold together
tissues that undergo considerable stress (such as skin or heart
muscle).
Tight junctions are tightly stitched seams between cells. The
junction completely encircles each cell, preventing the movement
of material between the cell. Tight junctions are characteristic of
cells lining the digestive tract, where materials are required to
pass through cells (rather than intercellular spaces) to penetrate
the bloodstream.
Gap junctions are narrow tunnels between cells that consist of
proteins called connexons. The proteins allow only the passage
of ions and small molecules. In this manner, gap junctions allow
communication between cells through the exchange of materials
or the transmission of electrical impulses.
 CELL ADHESION MOLECULES
• Enables cell to attach to basal lamina and
to each other.
• CAM divided into 4 families:-
1.laminin
2.integrins
3.IgG superfamily
4.cadherins
5.selectins
 Importance
• Embryonic development
• Formation of nervous system
• Holding tissues together
• Inflamation and wound healing
• Metastasis of tumor
 APOPTOSIS
• Programed cell death-in which body cell
die and get phagocytosed under genetic
control.
Mechanism:-activation of caspases(cystein
proteases) in mitochondria.
Factors:-enviormental,internal stimuli, Fas
(nk cells and T lymphocytes),TNF.
 SIGNIFICANCE
• Regression of duct during sex
differentiation.
• Degeneration and regeneration of neurons
• Formation of synapse.
• Removes inappropriate clones of immune
cells.
• Cyclic shedding of endometrium.
• cell shed –tip of villi- small intestine.