CONSTRUCTION &

MATERIALS

ROSHAN KUMAR
RAHUL KUMAR
MAHENDRA SINGH
SHAVI SAGAR
SHABAZ ALAM
 FLOOR FINISHES

Topics
covered:


Brick flooring
Cement concrete
 Terrazzo flooring
 Ceramic tiles
 Vitrified tiles
 Wooden flooring
 Chequered Tiles
 Stone flooring
 BRICK FLOORING
Introduction
Brick is the oldest human manufactured flooring material, and its
use dates back thousands of years.
Historically it has often been employed as an alternative to stone
and was commonly used in the construction of houses and manors
that did not require the protective qualities of real stone.
With the rise of cities, it surged in popularity, due largely to the
fact that it was a relatively durable, inexpensive, and fireproof
building material.
Type of brick used in
flooring

Engineering Brick
Recycled Brick

Concrete brick

Paver
s Hand Made Brick
 Type of brick
Pavers flooring flooring
• Flooring bricks are called pavers and are thinner
than construction grade materials.
• They are generally used because they do
not raise the level of the floor, and they place
a significantly lower weight load on the SOURCE: https://images.app.goo.gl/1aEvTFvGrPjWHTbe6
subfloor.
• Pavers are fired at a much higher temperature
than construction grade bricks in a process called
“over burning” which causes them to become
impervious to moisture and makes the surface of
the material resistant to wear.

SOURCE: https://images.app.goo.gl/RLNGDhwwAF55u8p37
 How to Install Brick Pavers ?
• Step 1: Level and Clean the Subfloor. Step 5: Lay the First Brick.

• Step 2: Locate the Center Point of the Room.

• Step 3: Mix the Thin-set Mortar. Step 6: Cut the Bricks to Size.

• Step 4: Apply the Mortar.

Step 7: Apply the Sealer.
Engineering Brick Flooring
• These are the standard thick bricks that
you will see used in the construction of
buildings.
• Their size means that they raise the level of
the floor while also placing a lot of weight
on the subfloor.
• These materials are relatively durable and
resistant to stains and wear; however, they
may be susceptible to damage from water
if not sealed.
• Over time engineered brick flooring will
begin to erode, and pits will appear on the
surface of your installation.
Recycled Brick Flooring
• Many people like the look of old,
weathered brick, as it can lend a sense
of history and charm to a space.
• Rather than waiting years for a new
flooring installation to weather, you can
get the charm instantly by installing
reclaimed brick flooring taken from old
houses and residences.
• This process is also eco-friendly
as it does not require the
manufacture of new materials,
however, it can be expensive.
Hand Made Bricks
• There are companies that specialize in
the production of handmade bricks,
created and fired individually.
• The appeal of these materials is that
each brick represents a unique work
of human craft, with its own
individual characteristics and
personality.
• While this is the most expensive brick
flooring option it can result in an
impressive installation.
Concrete brick flooring
• Concrete brick is a mixture of cement and
aggregate, usually sand, formed in molds and
cured.
• Certain mineral colours are added to produce
a concrete brick resembling clay.
• Concrete brick flooring is very cheep.
• It is highly durable.
CHARACTERISTICS BRICK
FLOORING
• The low maintenance requirements of brick flooring make it very popular in kitchens.
• Durability: Brick is one of the hardest and most durable flooring materials available. It
requires little to no maintenance, and an installation can last for years.
• The tile is set in such a way that when it is installed it is very difficult to detect a repeating
pattern in the surface.
• Brick is a highly durable material that is not easily damaged by the rigors of a busy household,
pets, high-traffic, or frequently moved furniture.
• Brick's hard surface makes it easy to clean—with a quick sweep or vacuuming
• Because brick is made of clay and is grouted with cementitious mortar, brick floors are highly
susceptible to stains unless they are properly sealed.
• In most cases, a sealer should be applied soon after the flooring is installed, and it needs to be
reapplied periodically throughout the life of the floor to maintain protection.
• Red brick is used for the flooring which is made from clay. Red brick is the most popular and
leading building material because it is cheap, hard, durable and easy to handle and to work
with.
 METHOD OF
•
CONSTRUCTION
The earth fillings properly consolidated.
• 10cm thick layer of dry clean sand is evenly laid.
• 10cm thick layer of LIME CONCRETE (1:4:8) or LEAN CEMENT CONCRETE (1:8:16)
is laid, compacted and cured to form a base concrete.

• Well soaked bricks are laid in CEMENT MORTAR (1:4) in any desired bond
pattern e.g. Herring Bond, Diagonal Bond or any other suitable bond.
• In case the pointing is not to be done , the thickness of joints should not
exceed 2mm and the mortar in joints is struck off flush with a trowel.

• In case the pointing is to be done, the minimum thickness of joints is kept

6mm and the pointing may be done as specified.
• The bricks shall be laid on the edge; in diagonal herring bone bond or other
patterns. They may also be set in the principal direction of the hall.
• Over the layer of lean cement concrete mix, flooring shall be laid over well
compacted and levelled ground.
• Cement concrete bed 10 to 15 cm thick is laid and rammed.
• The base concrete shall be provided with the slope required for the flooring for
water to drain naturally. Over this bedding, bricks are placed in proper bond on
their edges.
• Sometimes, the joints are pointed to obtain a better appearance.
METHOD OF
CONSTRUCTION
 APPLICATI
• ONS
Primarily used for architectural purposes. But, now
used in commercial complexes, parking area and
community centres. These pavers are offered in
various designs and sizes.
• Other properties: Colour, Texture, Heat, Slip,
Resistant, Hardness, Replacement and Weight.
• Bricks are available in a range of thicknesses,40mm
to 100mm. For domestic use ,the 50mm -60mm
units are suitable. Road construction -80 mm thick
units. Airports, ports and freight yard-100mm thick
units.
 ADVANTA
• Cheaper than Cement concrete,GES
wooden, mosaic
flooring.
• Provides a non slippery and fire resistant surface.
• Easily repairable.
• Tough ,durable and sufficiently hard.
• Easy in maintenance.
• Easy to construct.

DISADVANTA
• GES
Slightly Uneven when laid.
• The resulting surface is not smooth and is rough.
• Water absorbent.
• Installation requires use of toxic materials.
CEMENT CONCRETE
FLOOR
FINISHES
 CONCRET
• E
Concrete is the most widely used man-made construction material in the world, it is obtained by
mixing cementitious material ,water and aggregated (and some times admixtures) in required
proportions. The mixture when placed in form and allowed to cure, hardens into rock-like mass.

CONCRETE PROCESS
BATCHING
MIXING
TRANSPORTING & CONVEYING
PLACING
COMPACTIING
CURING
FINISHING

BATCHING
• Batching is done by weight/volume –batching
machines control the flow of the exact amount of ,
cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate and the
ingredients like cement chemicals 17
 MIXING
• Mixing can be done manually

• Concrete mixer having a hopper and mixing drum of 1 bag cement capacity or 50kg.

• Large mixer unit to supply concrete by tucks having capacity of 10-12mt3

• Concrete when ready has to transported to the site before it sets.

• Manually

• Mechanical cranes

• Pumps and pipes

• Conveyor belts

• Trucks

PLACING
• The concrete is poured in to the form work by buckets, trolleys, hose pipes, spades,
trowels.
• Placing of concrete is important has to be done with care, and if it is throw from height the
mixture will segregate and result in honeycombing.

COMPACTING
• Manual compacting using steel rods/pins
• Mechanical- vibrators surface, pin, formwork vibrator
• Press is used to compact the blocks and tiles of concrete. 18
 CURING
• Concrete gains strength after 28days till then it has to be
cured in water.
• Ice /water sprinklers/wet gunny bags/cloth covered with
water are used to cure fresh concrete.
• Cracking shrinking and dryness is responsible due to lack of
curing, or less curing.

FINISHING
• Finishing can be done while the concrete is wet by applying
trowel, or trimix machine which compacts the fresh concrete
and absorb the excess water and makes finished surface.
Many time colour pigment are added to get coloured finish.

INGREDIANTS
• CEMENT
• AGGREGATE
• WATER
• CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
• SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL.
 Cement Concrete Floor

• The floor having its topping consisting of cement concrete is called Cement Concrete
Floor or Conglomerate Floor.

Types of Cement Concrete Floor

• It is a flooring where topping is not laid monolithically with the base concrete.
• According to the method of finishing it is classified as two types.
• Non-monolithic or bonded floor finish concrete floor.

20
 The topping is laid by two methods :A) Topping laid in single layer: The topping
consists of single layer of Cement Concrete(1:2:4), having its thickness
4cm.B) Topping laid twolayers: Thetopping consists of 1.5cm thick Cement
Concrete(1:2:3), which is laid monolithically over 2.5cmthick Cement Concrete
(1:3:6).

Monolithic Floor
Finish Concrete Floor
• The Cement Concrete Floor in which the
topping consisting of 2cm thick Cement
Concrete (1:2:4)
is laid monolithically with the Base
Concrete.

METHOD:
• The earth is consolidated and 10cm
thick layer of clean sand is spread.
• 10cm thick Lime Concrete (1:4:8)
or Lean Cement Concrete (1:8:16)
is laid thus forming base
concrete.
• The topping {4cm thick Cement Concrete (1:2:4)} is laid on the third day of 21
laying base cement concrete, thus forming Non-monolithic construction.
Processes of floor
• Levelling
finishes• Floating
• Throwlling
• Other treatment

Process is done to achieve the following

• Level
• Flatness
• Texture
• Suface density Basis of selection
The type of traffic and its frequency.
Whether the floor is subject to impact-loading.
Whether chemicals will come into contact with the slab
Floatin
g • The purpose of floating a concrete surface is to impart to it a relatively even but still open texture
preparatory to other finishing operations,
• and thus to embed large aggregate particles beneath the
• Surface remove slight imperfections and produce a surface closer to the true plane;
• compact the concrete and consolidate the mortar at the surface in preparation for other finishing
operations;
• close minor surface cracks which might appear as the surface dries.

Bull floating Ride on

machine trowel
Floating by
Hand • Three types of hand float are in common use –wooden, magnesium and composition.
• Wooden floats require skilled operators and timing is important. If used too early, they stick, dig in, and
can tear the surface.
• Used too late, they roll the coarser particles of fine aggregate out of thebsurface.
• Magnesium floats require less effort and will not rollbcoarse particles of fine aggregate out of
thesurface.
• They can be used after wood or power floating to give a more uniform swirl finish, which is not quite so
rough in texture as that produced by a wooden float.
• wood or power floating.

Machine throwing Hand floating

Broom finishing to provide skid
Typical trussed vibrating-beam
resistance
screed

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Floating by
• Machines for floating are usually trowelling machines with float shoes or, for use on low-slump concrete
Machine or toppings, disc-type machines (Kelly floats).
• Float blades are wider than trowel blades and are turned up along the edges to prevent them digginginto
the surfaces whilst in the flat position.
• For this reason, floating with a trowelling machine equipped with normal trowel blades should not be
attempted.
• The power-float should be operated over the concrete in a regular pattern leaving a matt finish

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Trowelling by
Hand • Apasstrowel for hand finishing has a flat, broad steel blade and is used in a sweeping arc motion with each
overlapping the previous one.
• The time for trowelling to be most effective calls for some experience and judgement, but, in general
terms, when the trowel is moved across the surface it should give a ringing sound.

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Trowelling by
Machine
• The trowelling machine (power trowel or 'helicopter') is a common tool for all classes of work and consists
of several (generally four) steel trowel blades rotated by a motor and guided by a handle.
• Larger machines are ride-on and are suitable for rowelling large areas such as factory flowing
• Trowelling by machine should be carried out systematically over the concrete in a regular pattern. Corner
areas, areas close to obstructions and small irregularities should then be 'touched-up‘ with a hand trowel.

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Edgin
g • Edging provides a quarter-round arris along the edges of footpaths, patios, curbs and steps.
• It is achieved by running an edging trowel along the perimeter of the concrete. Edging trowels are steel
and incorporate a quarter-round forming edge.
• They are available in a variety of widths and with various diameter quadrants.
• Edging improves the appearance of many types of paving and makes the edges less vulnerable to
chipping

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Overlay
s
• Overlays are generally used in exterior spaces and there are hundreds of different types- faux flagstone, Kool deck, Pebble tech and
stamped

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TOLERANCES AND
FINISH
SPECIFICATIONS
• The tolerances specified for the surfaces of slabs or other flatwork
should be appropriate to their final use
• Achieving tight tolerances increases costs. It may be necessary,
for example, to have tight tolerances in warehouses with high-
racking bays but
• it would be unnecessarily expensive to have very tight tolerances for
the loading dock areas where the delivery trucks are received.
• NZS 3109 specifies floor tolerances to ensure that the structural
behaviour is not impaired (it does not specify tolerances for the
serviceability or usefulness of the floor.
• Floors generally have to meet two independent tolerance criteria.
One deals with the desired elevation and the other the 'flatness' of
the floor.
Types of
flooring

• Concrete is the most widely employed flooring material as

it is suitable for any type of construction and is cheaper as Colored admixtures, shake-on color
well as durable than others.
• Cement Concrete mix of 1:3:6 to 1:5:10 or lime concrete
hardeners, penetrating chemical stains and
with 40% 1:2 lime sand mortar and 60% coarse aggregate
is used as base course.
dyes add interest and beauty to polished
• After hardening, 1:2:4 cement concrete mix with 40 mm
concrete floors.
thick layer is laid as topping. In industrial buildings,
granolithic finish is given to get a hard wearing surface.
• Granolithic finish is acquired from rich conrete with tough
quality coarse aggregate mix.

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Polishing can be used on new concrete floors or to refurbish Translucent dyes and various grind depths will bring
old interesting
or damaged surfaces. This process can be cost-effective and appearance alternatives to standard gray concrete
allows for creative design elements. Polished floors can be floors
found
in stores, public buildings, and shopping malls.

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Retailers often use different colors to identify
unique product sections and create a
visual impact. Various colored shake-on
hardeners were used on this surface.
Shake-on colored hardeners, polishing, and
decorative saw cuts can add dimension.
Regular cleaning with mild, non-acidic,
concrete
cleaners and conditioners will help the floor
hold its gloss longer. This surface does not
require wax.

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Polished concrete floors are becoming a The floor of this car dealership is polished
popular design element in retail concrete with a
stores, corporate office buildings, schools and natural appearance and decorative saw cuts
LEED certified buildings.

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PROCE
SS
TERRAZZO
FLO0RING
CONTENTS
• Purpose Of Flooring.
• Terrazzo Flooring.
• Materials
• Procedure
• Workmanship
• Polishing
• Curing Of Terrazzo Flooring.
• Finishing
• Advantages Of Terrazzo Flooring.
• Disadvantages Of Terrazzo Flooring.
• Common Types Of Terrazzo Flooring.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF FLOORING?
• Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor.
• Floor covering is a term generically describe any finish material applied over a structure to provide a
walking and working surface.
• The purpose of a floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of a building,
furniture, equipment and sometimes internal partitions.
• The floor under the flooring is called subfloor which provides the support. There are different special
purpose subfloors such as floating floors, raised floor or sprung, may be laid upon another underling
subfloor which provides the structural strength.
TERRAZZO FLOORING
• Terrazzo is a composite material, poured in
place or precast, which is used for floor and wall
treatments.
• It consists of chips of marble, quartz,
granite, glass or other suitable material,
poured with a cementations binder.
• Terrazzo is a concrete surface with special
aggregates of marble chips(or other decorative
materials) mixed with white or colored cement
in proportion of 3:1 (three marble chips: one
cement).
 FLOORING MATERIALS
• TERRAZZO FLOORING consists of
chips of marble, quartz, granite, glass,
or other suitable material, poured with
a cementations binder (for chemical
binding), polymeric (for physical
binding), or a combination of both
• The choice of materials for floor
covering is affected by factors such as
COST, ENDURANCE, NOISE
INSULATION, COMFORT & CLEANING
EFFORT.
 PROCEDURE
The flooring may be laid in different thicknesses. 40mm thick
flooring will consist of a 6-8 mm thick layer of terrazzo
topping and 34-40 mm thick under layer of cement
concrete.
Prior to laying flooring, the whole area is divided into suitable
panels by use of dividing strip (made from copper, brass,
aluminum or glass) , in order to reduce the risk of cracking,
the area of a panel shall not exceed 2sq m.
The concrete under layer is then spread, consolidated, leveled
and finished to a slightly rough surface.
When the under layer has harden sufficiently, already
prepared plastic terrazzo mixture is laid and compacted
thoroughly by tamping or rolling.
After tamping or rolling, the surface is floated and toweled and
left to dry out for 12 to 18 hours.
After this period the surface is cured under standing water for
2 days.
 WORKMANS
HIP
• The cement and marble powder
shall be mixed in the proportion of
three parts of cement to one part
marble powder by weight.
• For every part of cement marble
powder mix, the proportion of
aggregate by volume shall be
according to table:
• Grade No Size of Aggregates
(mm)
Proportion of Aggregates :
Binder
Mix Min. thickness of top
layer
• 0 1-4 /1.75 : 1 /6-9
• 1 4-7/ 1.25:1 /9 2
• 7-10 /1.5:1/ 12 10
 WORKMANSHIP
• Where the aggregate of size larger than 10mm are used then the min. thickness of topping shall not
be less than 1-1/2 times the max. size of chips.
• Where large size chips such as 20mm or 25mm are used, they shall be used only with flat shape and
bedded on the flat face so as to keep the min. thickness of wearing layer.
• The cement to be used shall be ordinary grey cement, white cement, colored cement with add
mixture of coloring matter of approved quality.
• Coloring materials where specified shall be mixed dry thoroughly with the cement and marble
powder and then marble chips added and mixed.
• This mixture shall be stored in a dry place and well covered and protected from moisture.
• The dry mortar shall be mixed with water in the usual way as and when required.
• The mixed mortar shall be homogeneous and stiff and to contain just sufficient water to
make it workable.
• The terrazzo topping shall be laid while the under layer is still plastic, but has hardened
sufficiently
to prevent cement from rising to the surface. This is normally achieved between 18 to 24 hrs. after
the under layer has been laid
WORKMANSHIP
• A cement slurry preferably of the same
color as the topping shall be brushed
on the surface immediately before
laying is commenced.
• It shall be laid to a uniform
thickness slightly more than that
specified in order to get the
specified finished thickness after
rubbing.
• The surface of the top layer shall be
trowel led over, pressed and brought
true to required level by a straight edge
and steel floats in such a manner that
the max. amount of marble chips come
up and are spread uniformly over the
surface.
PROCEDUR
ES
•
•
RUBBING & CURING
The surface shall be allowed to cure for 5 to 7 days and then rubbed with machine fitted with fine grit blocks.
cleaning and repairing.
The surface is again cured for 3 to 5 days after

• Curing shall be done by suitable means such as laying moist sawdust or pounding water.

• POLISHING & GRINDING

• Polishing shall be done by machine. About 36 hrs after laying the top layer, the surface shall be watered and ground evenly with machine, fitted with
special rapid cutting grit blocks, (carborundum stone) of coarse grit till the marble chips are evenly exposed and the floor is smooth.
• After the first grinding, the surface shall be thoroughly washed to remove all grinding mud and covered with the grout of cement and coloring matter in the
same mix and proportion as the topping in order to any pin holes that appear.
• Where machine polishing is not possible it shall be done by hand.

• FINISHING
• Finally the third grinding shall be done with machine fitted with fine grade grit blocks(no.320), to get even and smooth surface.
• After the final polish oxalic acid shall be dusted over the surface @ 33 grams per sq. meter sprinkled with water and rubbed hard with nemdah block(pad of
woollen rags).
• The following day, the floor shall be wiped with a moist rag and dried with a soft cloth and finished clean.
• Architects find great use of terrazzo due to it's sustainable features, which can contribute to LEED points. Terrazzo is made to outlast and
outperform other types of flooring options. As a result, it provides a long life cycle that minimizes overall cost.

• DURABILITY
• Terrazzo is ideal for high foot traffic areas like schools, hospitals, airports and malls.
• Terrazzo has tremendous resistance to chemicals, fire and abrasions, allowing terrazzo to last on average up to 75 years.
• Thin-set epoxy terrazzo flooring is even more durable than other terrazzo systems .
• The compressive strength of our EZpour Epoxy 158 epoxy resin system is about 13,200 psi, meaning the floor should be able to withstand
13,200 pounds per square inch of pressure. 13,200
• DESIGN
• design flexibility
• Combine an unlimited color range with different aggregate options from recycled glass, pearl and other natural stone. TO GET VARIETES
OF PATTERNS AND TEXTURES
• GREEN
• With low VOC content, terrazzo works to improve indoor air quality.
• Terrazzo also includes pre-consumer and post- consumer aggregates.
• Recycled glass not only provides a great selection of colors but will contribute to LEED credit for its re-use.
• Also, terrazzo is antimicrobial, making it ideal for hospital and school settings. 70% of a terrazzo floor's surface consists of
aggregate chips.
• LOW MAINTENANCE
 TYP
• THERE ARE PRIMARY TWO MATRICES OR MATERIALS USED TO COMPOSE TERRAZZO
• CEMENT ES
• EPOXY RESIN

BONDED
This system is composed using a half inch cement matrix topping. An underbred made of sand and
cement bonds with the concrete slab. The terrazzo is poured on top. Requires the concrete slab to be
depressed 1.75 inches.
• MONOLITHIC
• This system is composed using a half inch
matrix topping. It consists soley of the
bonding agent and the terrazzo topping.

RUSTIC
This system is composed using a non-
ground, textured cement matrix
topping. This system can be
combined with bonded and
monolithic systems. It requires a two
inch depressed slab. It is classified by
its distinct textured surface.
• SAND-CUSHION
• This system is composed using a half inch cement
matrix topping. It consists of sand dusting, an
isolation membrane, a wire reinforcement, and an
underbred. It requires a 2.5 or 3 inch depressed
slab

THIN-SET EPOXY
This system is composed using a 1/4 inch or 3/8 resin-based matrix topping. It can be specified with
glass, synthetic, or granite aggregates in addition to marble. This system is well known for it's brilliant
colors and durability.
NAME THICKNESS SIZES COLOUR PRICE
Vintage Tiles 12-18mm - customized 100rs/per sq feet
Polished Terrazzo
Tiles
Reddish terrazzo 10-12mm 250*250mm Reddish, green, Rs10 per piece
mosaic 300*300mm grey and
peach
Terrazzo floors customized customized customized 45rs/per sq feet

Polish terrazzo 15-20 mm 1*1feet 125rs/per sq feet

Terrazzo tiles 5-10mm 150*150mm varieties Rs25 per piece

300*300mm
Terrazzo Mosaic 6-8 mm 150*150mm varieties 32rs/per sq feet
Tiles 300*300mm

Multi color epoxy - As per requirement As per requirement 8,500rs / sq meter

terrazzo floors
CERAMIC
TILES

http://market-entry-romania.blogspot.com/2016/03/the-romanian-market-of-ceramic-
tiles.html
INTRODUCTION
● Ceramic means ‘fired clay’.
● Common raw materials used are sand, clay,
talc & feldspar.
● A ceramic tile is just clay that's
formed,glazed & baked.
● Floor tile is usually 1/2-3/4
inch thick and
can be manufactured in 2 by 2
up to 24 by
24 inches.
● Most ceramic tiles are 12 by 12 inches, but
small tiles such as mosaic on mesh can be as
thin as 1/8 inch and go up to 3/8 inch.

https://stoneandtileshoppe.com/blogs/construction-renovation/tile-sizes
PROPERTIES

● High Strength ● Durable

● Fire Resistance ● Stain Resistance
● Dirt Resistance ● Chemical Resistance
● Colour Permanence ● Water Absorption
● Slip & Skid ● Hygienic
Resistance ● Frost Resistance
● Scratch Resistance

https://www.thespruce.com/porcelain-
tile-vs-ceramic-tile-1822583
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1. Preparing the raw materials
2. Batching
3. Mixing & Grinding
4. Spray Drying
5. Pressing
6. Drying
7. Glazing
8. Firing
The Raw Materials
Typical raw materials normally used in a ceramic tile are clay, feldspar,
pottery stone, silica sand and talc. Clay is the most important
component consisting mainly of the hydrous silicate of alumina.

● Crushing - A jaw crusher or gyratory crusher is used to reduce

larger lumps of the material.
● Grinding - Hammer or muller mills are often used to reduce
smaller lumps to particles.
● Sieving - Screens are used to separate out particles in a specific
size range.

Once the raw materials are processed, a number of steps take place to
obtain the finished product. These steps include batching, mixing and
grinding, spray-drying, forming, drying, glazing, and firing.
BATCHING MIXING & GRINDING
● It is important to mix the right ● Once batching is done, the raw
amounts together to achieve materials are added together into a
the desired properties. shell mixer, ribbon mixer, or intensive
● Batch calculations are thus mixer resulting in a finer particle size
required, which must take that improves the subsequent forming
into consideration both process.
physical properties and ● Wet Milling - water is added to
chemical compositions of the improve the mixing of a multiple-
raw materials. ingredient batch as well as to achieve
● It maybe done by mass or by fine grinding performed using a ball
volume. However, mill to form a slurry. The water is then
proportioning by mass is far removed from the slurry by filter
more accurate than that by pressing (which removes 40-50
volume. percent of the moisture), followed by
dry milling.

http://www.ceramic-research.com/articles_03.html
SPRAY - DRYING
● This process involves pumping the slurry to an
atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or
nozzle to remove excess water.
● The slurry is dried using a rising column of hot
air that result in a powder suitable for forming.
● Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry
grinding followed by granulation.
● Granulation uses a machine in which
the
mixture of previously dry-ground material is
mixed with water in order to form the particles
into granules, which again form a powder
ready for forming.

https://www.sacmi.com/en-us/ceramics/Tiles/Powder-
preparation
PRESSING DRYING
● In this method, the free ● This is carried out
flowing powder to increase the
containing organic strength of the
binder or a low unfired tile and
percentage of moisture also to reduce the
flows from a hopper into risk of tile loss
the forming die. due to
● The material is deformation as
compressed in a steel the tile rapidly
cavity by steel plungers shrinks/cracks as
and is then ejected by steam is rapidly
the bottom plunger. evolved in the
kiln.

http://www.ceramic-
research.com/articles_03.ht
ml
GLAZING
● Ceramic glaze is an impervious layer or coating of a vitreous
substance which has been fused to a ceramic body through
firing.Glaze can serve to color, decorate or waterproof an item.
● Composition - Raw materials of ceramic glazes generally include
silica, which will be the main glass former in combination with a
mixture of metal oxides like sodium, potassium and calcium which
act as a flux and allow the glaze to melt at a particular temperature
and alumina (usually from added clay) to stiffen the glaze and
prevent it from running off the piece.

https://whytile.com/project/l301-r-shinju-mirai-
serene-olympia/
GLAZING
After a batch formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed,
mixed and dry or wet milled. The milled glazes are then applied using one
of the many methods available.

1. Centrifugal glazing/discing - the glaze is fed through a rotating disc

that flings or throws the glaze onto the tile.
2. Bell/waterfall method - a stream of glaze falls onto the tile as it
passes on a conveyor underneath or sometimes glaze is simply
sprayed on.
3. Screen printing - For multiple applications, glaze is forced
through a
screen by a rubber squeegee or other device.
4. Dry glazing - involves the application of powders, crushed frits
(glass materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed tile
surface. After firing, the glaze particles melt into each other to
produce a surface like granite.
FIRING
● After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to
strengthen it and give it the desired porosity.
● The process includes heating clay work in a kiln which
permanently transforms the clay to a rock-like state
and melts glazes due to the effect of chemical and
physical reactions within the green body during
heating .

https://trikeenan.com/about-trikeenan/factory-tour/
FIRING
● Tile that is prepared by dry grinding instead of
wet milling usually requires a two-step process.
● In this process, the tile goes through a low-
temperature firing called bisque firing before
glazing which removes the volatiles from the
material and most or all of the shrinkage. The
body and glaze are then fired together in a
process called glost firing.
● For tile that only requires a single firing—usually
tile that is prepared by wet milling—roller kilns
are generally used.
● After firing and testing, the tile is ready to be
packaged and shipped.
APPLICATIONS
Ceramic Tiles are a widely used material in interior decoration, both due to their low cost and aesthetic look. They
are mainly used for decorative purposes and in areas with low traffic density. Applications of these tiles include -

1. Flooring
2. Walls
3. Kitchen Counters
4. Patio
5. Walkways
6. Fireplaces
7. Swimming Pools
INSTALLATION https://www.diynetwork.com/how-to/rooms-and-
spaces/basement/how-to-tile-a-floor

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4

Clean the floor & snap Dry run the tiles. Apply the self-mix thin-set Place the tiles.
chalk lines. Mortar.

STEP 5 STEP 6 STEP 7 STEP 8

Cut odd tiles. Place the spacers. Apply the grout. Remove excess grout.
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGES
S
● Very durable ● Can be cold
● Impervious to water and stains ● Hard underfoot
● Non-allergenic ● Very heavy
● Many design options ● Difficult and time-consuming to
● Easy maintenance install
 VITRIFIED TILE

 ‘Vitrified ‘ is made from the word ‘vitrify’ which means to change an

INTRODUCTION:
element into glass or something similar to glass.

 These tiles are prepared by fusing clay and silica at high temperatures
to prepare a tile that is sturdier, glossier and less porous than ceramic.

 During the process of vitrification, the silica and clay melt and blend
together to form a glass-like element inside each tile, allowing it to
retain the original sheen even after several years of use.

 These tiles come in a variety of styles, patterns and colors, making

them a viable alternative to marble or granite.
https://www.livspace.com/in/magazine
 Simply put, we can also say that Vitrified tiles are low porosity
ceramic tiles.
TYPES OF VITRIFIED TILES:

VITRIFIED
TILES

1-FULL BODY 2-DOUBLE 3- DIGITAL 4-SOLUBLE

CHARGE GLAZED SALTS
 1-FULL BODY VITRIFIED TILES

 Full body vitrified tiles have pigment in entire

body (thickness) of the tile.
 This makes chips and scratches less noticeable and
make this an ideal choice for high traffic zones, but
the process significantly increases the cost.
 Colour and design is uniform throughout the tile.
 Full Body Vitrified tiles ranging from 100x100mm
to 600x1200mm in thickness of 10mm, 12mm,
15mm and 16mm.

Pros: + Design will NEVER fade because it is spread in entire body of tiles.
+ Ideal flooring which can resist heavy traffic areas such as shopping complex, airports etc.

Cons: - Very costly compared to other type of tiles.

- Limited design selection available.
Source; https://viterotiles.com/
2- DOUBLE CHARGE VITRIFIED TILES

 This is a type of vitrified tiles where

the press feeds two colors on the tiles
bisque and makes a thick layer of
design on top of it.
 So such design layer becomes 3
to 4 mm thicker.(design is not
throughout the body only on the
top.)
 Different face and body.
 Designs created emulate the design of
marble and granite.

Pros: + DC tiles have very long life compared to

traditional soluble salt tiles.

Cons: - Due to technology limitations the design

patterns are limited.
Source;
3- GLAZED VITRIFIED TILES:
• Glazed vitrified tiles or GVT are manufactured on a glazed surface and are printed with digital technology.
• Main advantage with GVT is it offers option of making any type of design/art work that is only possible in this
type of vitrified tiles. Many type of textures (like wooden, bamboo, slate or stone) are possible in GVT.

POLISHED • The polished glazed vitrified tiles (PGVT) have a super smooth surface and it is ideal
for interiors of residential as well as commercial constructions. It gives high gloss and
beautiful surface look.

UNPOLISHED • Unpolished vitrified tiles on the other hand have excellent anti skid properties. This
makes them ideal for exteriors and outdoor flooring

Double Charge is very thick

which makes surface
much stronger when it compares
to GVT and PGVT. Because GVT
and PGVT has only 1 to 2 mm of
glazed layer and on that glazed
designs is digitally printed.
POLISHED GVT UNPOLISHED GVT
 4- SOLUBLE SALT
VITRIFIED TILE
• Soluble Salt tiles are ivory-based tiles (plain ivory and design ivory) that can be developed
using simple technology.
• The design on the surface of the tile is printed using liquid color screen printing.
The tile material absorbs the soluble salt to paint the design on the tile after it is heated in the
kiln.
• Single charged tiles are nothing but basic vitrified tiles with a 1mm glazing at the top.
Normally, we don't get much designs in this.

Source; https://viterotiles.com/
 PROPERTIES:
• Non-porous tile with glass - like texture.
• Unlike Ceramic tiles, the vitrified tile doesn't need additional glaze to be added on to it.
• It has much higher mechanical strength than the contemporary ceramic tiles.
• More durable.
• Vitrified floor tiles have very less water absorption property. Hence it has a very low porosity. Hence it will
not make floor damp.
• It has high resistance to water.
• Vitrified tiles have more resistance to scratches.
• Polished tiles reflect much more brightness. Therefore polished tiles are often used for flooring and in
kitchens.
• The effect of heat will not remove the color of the tiles and also not cause them to fade.
• Vitrified floor tiles have more resistance to stains due to low porosity and easy to clean.
• It has a high frost resistance due to low water absorption. So it is most suitable for outdoor areas.
• It is moisture resistant, it prevents bacteria and fungi from growing.

Source : https://
www.livspace.com/in/magazi
 MANUFACTURI
NG:
Vitrified tiles are made by combining 40% clay and 60% silica in a process called vitrification.
It is made by hydraulic pressing a mixture of clay, quartz, feldspar and silica, which
make vitreous surface. Thus creating a single mass making them hard with low porosity.

PROCESS:

• In the process of manufacturing of tile first the raw clay is loaded

into the hoppers and blended with minerals in batch mixer
homogeneously.
• Ball mills content giant alumina balls which crush the clay into a
finest slurry
• The passed material then go through the channel where magnetic
purification of slurry is done.
• Slurry is then pumped with high pressure pump to a silo through a nozzle which have small holes in it.
• Spraying action forms a finest granules of clay which are slightly moist.
• After formation of granules they are further moved to pressing machine which shape the tile body.
• The finest clay powder is then sent to a pressing machine.
• vitrified tiles are made by pressing powder into mould at slightly high pressure.

The classification of the any tile is based on its water absorption property which comes from this process.
Pressing at high pressure ensure the extra amount of powder to be pressed in same volume of tile creating
lesser voids in base tiles which corresponds to low water absorption and vice a versa.

• Vitrified tiles pressing is done at 550 bars of pressure.

• Dried tiles then coated with glaze and sent forward for printing.

Source :https://civil4m.com/
ADVANTAGES
• scratch resistant.
• Vitrified tiles are easier to install and need
practically no setting time or polishing after
laying. Therefore they can be used within 48
hours after laying.
• Vitrified tiles have very less water absorption and
are stain resistant.
• Due to moisture resistant, vitrified tiles prevent
bacteria and fungi from growing.
• It is easy to clean as it has shiny surface.
• These tiles will best option the flooring in wet
areas as they are moisture resistant.
• The sheen is not lost very soon.
• The effect of sunlight neither alters the color of
the tiles nor causes them to fade
DISADVANTAGES
• They are Expensive when compared to the cost of
ceramics tiles.
• In order to ensure the steadiness, high-quality
adhesives are used.
• The tile with the defect must be cut away along
the grout lines and surrounding material could be
damaged in the process.
• Vitrified tiles are slippery when wet.
• Moreover, it is quite unlikely that you will find the
same tile after some years and hence when you
buy tiles, always buy few extra pieces and serve it
for public future use.
Source;
APPLICATI
ON:

Source: https://www.hunker.com/
• Spread cement slurry over the cement mortar.

• Lay the side skirting(4”) with

thick cement slurry.
• Clean the surface with
sponge and finish tile joint
with grout.
Source: https://www.hunker.com/
• Allow 3-7 days for curing.
 WOODEN
FLOORING
Introduction -
• Wood flooring is any floor constructed from timber that is
designed for use as flooring, either structural or
aesthetic.
• Wood is a common choice as a flooring material and can
come in various styles, colors, cuts, and species.

TYPES OF WOODEN FLOORING-

• Laminate flooring
• Engineered wood flooring
• Solid wood flooring
• Reclaimed wood flooring
• Parquet flooring
• Bamboo flooring
• Cork flooring
 LAMINATE FLOORING - RECLAIMED WOOD
FLOORING -
• Laminate flooring is a compressed fiberboard plank,
covered with a photographic image of wood with a • Reclaimed wood
protective overlay. flooring is timber that
has been used in
• High traffic areas that will need frequent cleaning, such another, older property
as living rooms, studies and playrooms. and has been salvaged
to be reused.
• Some products include a waterproof • Reclaimed timber
flooring can be installed
core, which are suitable for
anywhere, but it's best
bathrooms and kitchens. avoided in bathrooms
• Scratch and wear-
where moisture may
cause the timber to swell
tear resistant. and crack.
 ENGINEERED WOOD FLOORING -

• Each engineered wood floorboard consists of three or

four layers of wood, glued together to create a plank
around 14mm thick.
• It has a real-wood veneer of around 4mm thick on top,
which means it can be sanded back and treated to
restore the original finish if it becomes scuffed, worn or
damaged.
• It's sometimes available with a 'click-and-lock'
installation, which doesn't require any adhesive.
• Tongue-and-groove versions will need to be glued into
place.
SOLID WOOD FLOORING -
• Each solid wood board is made from a single piece of
wood, typically 18-20mm thick.
• It is usually fitted using tongue-and-groove.
• Solid wood flooring can be sanded back to restore the
finish – the number of times you can do this is
determined by how deep the tongue is set from the top
of the board.
PARQUET FLOORING –
• Easily recognizable, parquet flooring is
formed of short wooden blocks or strips
arranged into a geometric pattern; usually
herringbone or basket weave.
• Parquet flooring is suitable throughout a
property but best avoided in humid areas
like bathrooms.
BAMBOO FLOORING - CORK FLOORING –
• Technically a grass rather than a wood, bamboo
forms its own unique grain pattern and can be
• Eco-friendly and sustainable, cork is actually
the bark of the cork oak tree. Bark naturally
worked into extremely hard-wearing floorboards
splits periodically – around every 9-15 years –
that look and feel very similar to natural hardwood. and can be safely harvested without harming
• Bamboo reaches maturity in a quarter of the time the trees.
of hardwood trees, which means it's more • The bark regrows and the cycle continues on for
sustainable to harvest. years and years.
• Bamboo works well in most rooms. Although • For flooring, cork is ground up, compressed and
it's more water resistant than hardwood, it's formed into sheets bonded with resins.
not waterproof, so it's best avoided in
• Cork has a soft surface which can act as a slight
bathrooms.
cushion, so it can be a great choice for children's
• Can last upwards of 50 years if properly bedrooms or playrooms.
maintained. • Cork retains warmth so feels cozy underfoot. It's a
good choice for those with allergies too, as it
doesn't absorb dust or mites.
•Cork floor tiles are
finished with an invisible
varnish that gives
protection against water
stains and damage.
•High humidity can
also cause cork to curl,
so it's best to avoid in
bathrooms.
 TYPES DURABILITY RESISTANCE THICKNESS COST
WATER | FIRE
Laminate flooring 15-25 years YES YES 8 mm

Engineered wood 30 years NO YES 12 mm/16 mm/18 mm /

flooring 21mm

Solid wood flooring 25 years NO NO 8-15 mm

Reclaimed wood Depends on the wood DEPENDS Depends on the wood used
flooring used

Parquet flooring 10-15 years DEPENDS 1-15 mm

Bamboo flooring 20-25 years YES YES 10 mm/ 12mm(strand

woven) /14mm(engineered)
/ 15 mm(solid)

Cork flooring 35-40 years NO NO 3-4 mm

INSTALLATION OF WOODEN
FLOOR -
• Nail-down - Nailing down wood floors is the most
common installation method.

-The process involves nailing the flooring directly to a

wood
subfloor https://www.slaughterbeckfloors.com

-Typically, the flooring is “blind nailed” through the tongue .

-With this method, the nails are nearly invisible after

installation

• Glue-down - The glue-down installation method involves using

adhesive to adhere the flooring material directly to the subfloor, https://www.slaughterbeckfloors.com
or to a moisture barrier installed directly on the subfloor.

• TONGUE AND GROOVE - One side and one end of the

plank have a groove the other side and end have a tongue.
Source -https://www.marbleyacht.com/
INSTALLATION OF WOODEN
FLOOR -

• FLOOR CONNECTION SYSTEMS - The general

principle is to how grooves all for sides of the plank
with a separate, unconnected, piece that is inserted
into the grooves of two planks to join them. The
piece used for the connection can be made from
wood rubber or plastic.

http://singcore.com/

• FLOATING INSTALLATION - A floating

installation is where the flooring is laid down in glue
less manner on top of a layer of underlay. The
individual planks are locked together using a wood
lock system. By this we can lay flooring without
damaging the old one.

https://www.slaughterbeckfloors.com/
INSTALLATION OF ENGINEERED WOOD
FLOOR
EQUIPMEN
TS

HAMMER
MEASURING TAPE CHALK LINE
BROOM

JAMB SAW
DRILLER WOOD MOISTURE METER
Ways of Application of floor finish
There are several ways to apply finishes. Some are simple and others a bit more
involved. Let’s take a brief look at each method.
Wipe On
• Many finishes can be wiped on with a rag, such as oils, varnish, and shellac.
Excess is wiped off with a dry rag.
• This is a quick way to finish projects.
Brush On
• Brushing a finish is a bit more complex than wiping.
• It requires cleaning, which can be difficult, and brushing may also leave marks
in the finish, making it doubly important to purchase quality brushes.
• Use a brush for stains and paints.
• We can use a brush for clear coats if you want a thicker layer of protection.
Spray On
• Paints, stains, and clear coats are available in spray cans these days, which
make it easy to lay down a nice finish without much fuss and cost.
• Clean up is also quick and easy.
 Wipe on
• Varnishes are quite
• When the varnish
• most common oils are
Linseed and tung oils,
there is the possibility
of using 'raw' or
polymerized oil, which
undergoes a heat
treatment to make it
more resistant to time
and accelerate drying
time.
Brush on Spray on
versatile and are
widely used in
facades, structures,
frames, and internal
parts.
layer begins to peel
off the wood, leaving
it unprotected, the
piece must be
sanded and • Airbrushes
varnished again.
and spray guns are the
two main devices used
for industrial spraying.
Types of wooden floor
•finishes
Water-Based Polyurethane
• Oil-Based Polyurethane
• Moisture-Cure Urethane
• Acid-Cured Finish
• Aluminium Oxide
 Water-Based Polyurethane Oil-Based Polyurethane
• Best for: Floors in need of a clear finish that • Best for: High-traffic areas
dries quickly
• Pros: Not too expensive; very durable;
• Pros: Easy application and cleanup; low resists moisture; easy to maintain
odor and low VOCs; very smooth and shiny
finish; no yellowing
• Cons: Slow drying; releases a lot of
VOCs; flammable; yellows over time
• Cons: High-gloss water-based polyurethane
magnifies every scratch and scrape
Moisture-Cure Urethane
Best for:
• Situations requiring the toughest floor finish
Pros:
https://www.wagnermeters.com/concrete-moisture-
• Extremely durable test/concrete-info/flooring-education-sports-facilities/

• Reduces moisture vapour transmission SPORTS

• Permanent bond & low odour
• Helps contribute to LEED(Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design) point qualification
• Once set it will not creep
Cons:
• Very high VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds)
• Difficult to apply

HIGH-TRAFFIC AREAS
https://www.mtechengineering.co.uk/staircases/l-shaped/
Acid-Cured Finish Aluminium Oxide
Best for: Best for:
• Exotic wood floors or those with elaborate • High-traffic areas or anywhere you want
patterns, such as parquet flooring
• Hardwood flooring
supreme protection from wear and tear.

Pros:
Pros:
• Extremely durable
•
• The hardest, most long-lasting type of finish
dries quickly
• low maintenance
Cons:
• Very high VOCs • Scratch resistance
• highly flammable • available in several levels of glossiness
• expensive
• pro-only application
Cons:
http://floorfinishesruikari.blo • Difficult to touch up or refinish
gspot.com/2017/05/acid-
cured-hardwood-floor- • only available on prefinished wood planks
finishes.html
TYPES BEST FOR PROS CONS

Water based Floors in need of a clear Easy application and High-gloss water-based
finish that dries quickly cleanup; low odor and low polyurethane magnifies
polyurethane VOCs; very smooth and every scratch and scrape
shiny finish; no yellowing

Oil based High-traffic areas Not too expensive; very Slow drying; releases a lot
durable; resists moisture; of VOCs; flammable; yellows
polyurethane easy to maintain over time

Moisture-Cure Situations requiring the Extremely durable Very high VOCs; difficult to
toughest floor finish apply
Urethane

Acid Cured Finish Exotic wood floors or those Extremely durable; dries Very high VOCs; highly
with elaborate patterns, quickly flammable; expensive; pro-
such as parquet flooring only application

Aluminium Oxide High-traffic areas or The hardest, most long- Difficult to touch up or
anywhere you want lasting type of finish; low refinish; only available on
supreme protection from maintenance; available in prefinished wood planks
wear and tear several levels of glossiness
FLOOR SANDING STAINING

PROCESS APPLYING FINISH

Why do floor finish?
There are really two reasons to apply a finish:
• Protection:
1. Wood is a porous material, capable of soaking in
anything that gets on it, such as oils, dirt, and chemicals.
2. A finish can seal the wood and keep “gunk” out of the
grain.
• Appearance:
1. All wood has a grain, some more vibrant than others. http://floorfinishesruikari.blogspot.co
m/2017/05/acid-cured-hardwood-
2. Finishes like stain will highlight and add some color to the floor-finishes.html
grain, livening it up.
3. Stain won’t, however, protect the wood, need to apply a
clear coat afterwards.
4. Even clear coats add a sheen and warmth to wood that
isn’t found when left raw.
CHEQUERED TILE
 Introduction
Chequered Tiles — Chequered tiles are cement
tiles or terrazzo tiles having grooves on the surface of
the tile making it anti-slippery. The area of chequered
grooves should not be less than 2 percent of the total
surface area of the tile. The chequered groove can be
in any shape and length, but the depth of the grooves
should not be less than 3 mm.

https://www.google.co.in/search?q=Chequered+tile&client=ucweb-b
 Types
• Plain chequered tile - Chequered tiles, in the manufacture of which pigments and stone chips are Not used in
the wearing surface.
• Chequered Coloured tiles - Chequered tile shaving a plain wearing surface wherein pigments are used but
not stone chips.
• Terrazo coloured tiles - Chequered tiles atleast 25 percent of whose wearing surface is composed of stone
chips in a matrix of plain or coloured Portland cement mixed with or without pigments and mechanically
ground and filled.
• Monolayer Tiles - Chequered tiles on which there is only one layer that is wearing layer, and which does
not
contain backing layer.
• Double Layer Tiles - Chequered tiles which contain a wearing layer as well as a backing layer.
 Classification

Cement concrete chequered tiles shall be of two classes as given below depending
on the duty they perform:
General purpose tiles:
Used for light traffic loads such as in entrances and staircases of office buildings,
schools, colleges, hospitals and residential buildings and in footpaths and
driveways within building compounds.
Heavy duty floor tiles :
Used for heavy traffic conditions such as in industrial Godowns and industrial
workshop floors; Platforms; ramps and entrances of public Buildings; passages of
auditoriums; and in Public footpaths and pavements within commercial building
compounds.

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/chequered-tiles-
9206960712.html
 Raw materials

• Cement : Cement used in the manufacture of Chequered Tiles is ordinary Portland cement
conforming to IS: 8112-1976 (43 Grade OPC) or IS: 12269-1987 (43 Grade OPC)
• Aggregate : In backing layer of chequered tiles, aggregate confirming to IS: 383-1970 is
used. For the wearing layer, aggregate consists of marble chips or any other natural stones
chips of similar characteristics and hardness; marble powder or dolomite powder or the
mixture of the two is used.
• Pigments : Colouring pigments provide attractive colours to the chequered tiles. Only permitted
and durable colours are used in manufacture of chequered tiles. The colouring pigment used in
wearing layer is restricted to 10% by mass of cement used.
 Manufacturing
• Chequered cement concrete tiles are
manufactured from a mixture of cement, natural
aggregate and colouring material by hydraulic
pressure process.
• During manufacture, the tiles are subjected to a
pressure not less than 14 N/ mm2.
• The proportion of cement to aggregate in
the backing layer is maintained to 1:3 by
pass.
• Tiles are also being manufactured by other
processes such as vibration process, either alone
or in combination with pressure process

https://youtu.be/aL1NoV80NwE
Manufacturing process

https://youtu.be/aL1NoV80NwE
 Installation
Bedding of mortar
• The bedding layer for laying tiles is to be prepared in cement mortar.
• The bedding must be leveled and laid to slight slope as desired.
• thickness of Bedding Mortar should not be more than 2" to avoid sinking of tiles.
Laying procedure
• The laying of Tiles should commence after the bedding has become sufficiently
hard.
• Neat cement slurry should be spread over the mortar bed and tiles should be
gently tapped over it, using a wooden hammer to match the top level of the
adjoining tiles. The cement sand ratio in cement mortar should be as per IS
specification (1:5).
• The joint shall be kept as thin as possible and in straight line.
Tolerances
The tile are manufactured within the following tolerance limits:
• Length & Breadth = (+ 1 mm)
• Thickness = (+ 5mm, - 0)
Thickness of wearing layer:
• The thickness of wearing layer of chequered is maintained minimum 6 mm.

•Finish :The colour and texture of the wearing layer shall be

uniform throughout its thickness. No appreciable
difference in the appearance of the tiles, from the point
of view of colour of aggregate, its type and its
distribution on the surface of the wearing layer shall
be present.
Physical requirements
• Flatness of the Tile Surface :the amount of concavity and convexity in the tiles shall not exceed 1 mm.
• Perpendicularity:
• Straightness: The gap between the thread and the plane of the tile shal not exceed 1 percent of the
length of the edge.
• Water Absorption: the average percent of water absorption shall not exceed 10.
• Wet Transverse Strength: the average wet transverse strength shall no be less than 3 N/mm2
• Resistance to Wear:
a) For general purpose chequered tiles:
1) Average wear : 3.5 mm
2) Wear on individual : 4 mm
specimen
b) For heavy duty chequered tile :
1) Average wear : 2 mm
2) Wear on individual : 2.5 mm
specimen
 Available sizes
Sr. No Length Breadth Single layer Double layer
tile (min. tile (min.
Thickness) Thickness)

1 200 200 17 22

2 250 250 17 22

3 300 300 20 25

4 400 400 20 25

Range of dimensions:
• Shall not exceed 1mm on length and breadth and 3mm on thickness
Silicon plastic chequered mould

https://youtu.be/A7TaoGxUQJM
Application in building industry
• Footpaths
• Entrance
• Staircase of public building
• Garden
• Park
• Passages
• Shops
• Commercial Places
• Exterior spaces of home and offices
Chequered tile features:
• Innovative designs
• Distinct colours and shapes
• Good finishing
• Easy to install
• Durability

Durability:
• All the tiles are durable and Remain stable for many years .

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/unique-cement-chequered-tile-
6925544973.html
 STONE FLOORING

Among flooring materials, none is more elegant and luxurious than natural stone. The term "natural stone"
refers to a variety of mountain-born mineral substances that stand in contrast to any synthetic
or manufactured stone products.
Stone flooring includes:
• Granite
• Marble
• Travertine
• Sandstone
• Slate
Granite flooring:

• Granite is an igneous rock formed from volcanic

activity. Granite tile remains a popular flooring
choice because of its overall resiliency, strength,
and number of unique color options. Our premium
surface granite tile selection offers over 50 color
patterns. We have the perfect granite tile for every
flooring project, whether it is for residential or
commercial use. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i3whco2AM-o

https://www.stonecontact.com/products-291736/tibet-
viscont-white-granite-flooring-tiles-slab
Physical properties of Granite:

https://worldofstonesusa.com/blog/durability-natural-
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages •Disadvantages
• Durable High Price

• hardness Installation

• Resistivity to moisture Slippery

• Low Maintenance Periodically resealed

• Resistivity to Heat

• Aesthetic
Marble flooring:
• Marble, quarried in mountainous regions around
the world, has been a very popular building
material for millennia. Prized for its beauty, style,
and elegance, this material has graced the palaces
of kings and queens for centuries, making it an
upscale, luxurious option for interiors. But as a
flooring material, it requires more maintenance
and is more susceptible to damage than ceramic https://weijiestone.en.alibaba.com/product/602359081
tile and other forms of natural stone. 82-
804967154/Elegant_lobby_marble_flooring_design_fro
m_Yunfu_factory.html
Properties of Marble:

https://worldofstonesusa.com/blog/durability-natural-
stone
Advantages and disadvantages
advantages disadvantages
Elegant, upscale appearance Porous stone, requires sealing

Natural material Scratches ,stains easily

Easily polished Expensive
Accommodates radiant floor heat Slippery , Brittle
Adds real estate value Cold underfoot
Travertine flooring:
• Travertine is a natural type of stone, like the
granite in your kitchen or the marble in your
bathroom. However, travertine only
develops around certain types of mineral
spring deposits, giving this unique type of
limestone a distinctive and striking https://www.homedepot.com/p/MSI-Beige-Pattern-Honed-
appearance. Unfilled-Chipped-Travertine-Floor-and-Wall-Tile-1-kit-8-sq-ft-case-
THDBEG-PAT-HUFC/203149910

https://in.pinterest.com/pin/125608277081957992/?nic_v2=1a6rG6
Properties of Travertine:

https://worldofstonesusa.com/blog/durability-natural-stone
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages disadvantages
Stylish but dignified Expensive
Durable Requires periodic sealing
Adds real estate value Cold and slippery underfoot
Sandstone flooring:
• Sandstone is a beautiful natural floor covering
that is popular for its distinctive style.
• It has proven itself as a reliable flooring
option since ancient times. Due to its
durability, many homeowners choose
sandstone tile, especially in high-traffic areas.
• It’s a popular tile for both indoors and https://www.stonecontact.com/products-451758/modak-
outdoors, adding warmth to the room or sandstone-tiles-slabs
outdoor space. Sandstone tiles can work well
wherever you need them but the best
applications for them are living
spaces, kitchens, bathrooms and hallways.

https://suistone.com/blog/5-unknown-traits-about-
sandstone-flooring/
Properties of Sandstone:

https://worldofstonesusa.com/blog/durability-natural-stone
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Natural beauty Water absorption
Durability Scratches
Uniqueness slippery
Texture Staining

Replaceable Weathering with age

Limestone:
• Limestone is a natural stone that is made
from sedimentary rocks. It is formed
under the bottom of the sea and is
pressurized, which makes it durable, yet
porous. With the right seal, limestone can
be very durable flooring that can handle
heavily trafficked areas. https://www.naturalstoneconsulting.co.uk/product/manoir-grey-
french-limestone-flooring/

https://www.stonesuperstore.co.uk/loire-limestone-tiles-tumbled
Properties of Limestone:

https://worldofstonesusa.com/blog/durability-natural-stone
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Cost Maintenance
Durability Soft
Natural Aesthetics Heavy in Weight
Flexibility

Conservation of Environment
Safety
Manufacturing process:
• Grinding
• Resin
• Leathering
• Hammering
• Tumbling
• Weathering
• Serration
Stones finishes
ACID WASHED POLISHED FINISH

BRUSH WASHED SAW CUT,REFINED

FLAMED FINISH SPLIT FACED

HONED FINISHED TUMBLED

Stone
Finishes
Stone finishes are mainly used to hide surface imperfections and tone variations, or to give the stone a
separate set of physical appearance and property .
There are various stone finishing textures and some of them are quite well-known, such as the main options
polished or honed marble, granite, travertine, etc. Depending on its finishing, the same type of natural
stone becomes suitable for different purposes since it enhances its durability or aesthetic appearance.

We can categorize them mainly in four groups:

1. Natural finishing
2. Mechanical finishing
3. Impact finishing
4. Chemical finishing
 Natural Finishing

• Sawn finish – this is the result of cutting the stone into tiles by
using a gang saw or block cutter. This type of finishing is suitable
for granite, sandstone and slate and then the tiles are used mainly
for exterior designs, such as patios, or for walls and gate entries.

• Riven finish – it's a textured finish that is the result of splitting the
natural block along its line of cleavage. Usually this natural cut is
done manually by guillotine. This is mainly found at slate and
quartzite tiles, since they are layered and can split easily, and it
gives the stone a natural look by revealing its grains and clefts
 Mechanical Finishing

• Polished finish – it gives a refined glossy surface of your natural stone tiles.
The shine comes from using abrasive materials, such as polishing bricks or
powders during fabrication. It makes the surface reflective. This type of finish
is suitable for almost all kind of stones. Some of the disadvantages of this
finish is that it wears away by foot traffic, requires regular maintenance and
makes the surface quite slippery. It can be applied to stones used both as
interior and exterior tiles.

• Honed finish – it is a finish that makes the surface of natural stone smooth
and matted, without or with limited reflection of light. The same method and
abrasive materials are used to achieve this finish as in polished finish, but
polishing stops at an earlier stage and the stone is not buffed. Tiles are smooth
but quite porous and should definitely be sealed.
 Impact Finishing

• Brushed finished – the roughness of the surface is formed

by means of metal brushes that take away the softest
particles of the stone. Certain force should be applied to
achieve the desired result. The stone tile is not slippery
and looks a bit worn-out. This finish resembles the more
popular antique and leather finishes and can be found
under the name bush finish as well.

• Bush-Hammered Finish – the stone surface is

mechanically treated by a multiple pointed tool and the
hammering action develops a non-slip textured look. The
surface is generally smooth and a little lighter in colour. As
the tool used for this finish has a relatively small head, it
takes quite long to achieve the final result, which can be
done faster and cheaper by using flame or water to get a
similar look.
• Flamed finish – this is a rough textured surface that is achieved by
heat and that is why it is also called thermal finish. A blowtorch is
used to heat the stone at very high temperature, which makes the
crystals in it to pop. The stone is then rapidly cooled. The process
affects the colour and some gold or yellow stones will become of a
more reddish colour as a result of the flamed finish. .

• Water finish – a high pressure jet of water is applied to the stone

surface in order to wash out the softer particles. The resulting
surface resembles the flamed finished one in roughness but the
method does not affect the colour of the stone, unlike the heating
process.

• Leather finish – this is a process very similar to the antique

finishing, which is used mainly for granite and marble. The idea is
the surface to look less glossy and to be easily cleaned and
maintained. Very suitable for counter tops.
Chemical Finishing

• Acid wash – acids can be used to simply clean the surface of natural
stone or to change its appearance, depending on the type of acid
and the length of its application. Acid wash is an alternative way to
achieve antiqued look and it also can have similar results as the
water finishing.

• Epoxy treated – it is a multi-step method that combines several

techniques. First the stone is honed so that it has a smooth surface
to which the resin can be applied. Then it is dried in a special oven
and the process of applying resin and drying is done one more time.
At the end, the stone is polished. The process improves the visual
characteristics and the resistance of the stone tiles.

• Protective treatment – this is not an actual surface finishing, but

rather the final step to protect the stone tiles by applying oil-
repellents or anti-graffiti treating substances. In a nutshell, this is the
process of protecting already installed tiles by treating them with the
respective substance.
CATALOGUE FOR STONES
• https://pdf.archiexpo.com/pdf/classical-natural-stone/catalogue/144698-260882.html
• http://www.marmoles-moratonas.com/english/catalogo-eng/120518-
Catalogo%20Moon%20Grey%20English.pdf
• https://cupastone.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/GRANITE-CATALOG-EN-2016.pdf
• https://www.sunriseminerals.com/images/E-Catalogue%20(Sunrise%20Minerals).pdf
Thank
you!