EC 701 Elective – I (EC – 7012 Digital Image Processing)

Unit-I
Digital Image Processing (DIP)
Introduction, examples of fields that use DIP, fundamental steps in DIP, components of
an image processing system.
Digital Image Fundamentals: elements of visual perception, image sensing and
acquisition, image sampling and quantization, basic relationships between pixels.
Unit-II
Image Transforms
Two-dimensional (2D) impulse and its shifting properties, 2D continuous Fourier
Transform pair, 2D sampling and sampling theorem, 2D Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT), properties of 2D DFT.
Other transforms and their properties: Cosine transform, Sine transform, Walsh
transform, Hadamard transform, Haar transform, Slant transform, KL transform.
Unit-III
Image Enhancement
Spatial domain methods: basic intensity transformation functions, fundamentals of
spatial filtering, smoothing spatial filters (linear and non-linear), sharpening spatial
filters (unsharp masking and high boost filters), combined spatial enhancement
method.
Frequency domain methods: basics of filtering in frequency domain, image
smoothing filters (Butterworth and Gaussian low pass filters), image sharpening filters
(Butterworth and Gaussian high pass filters), selective filtering.
 Unit-IV
Image Restoration
Image degradation/restoration, noise models, restoration by spatial filtering, noise
reduction by frequency domain filtering, linear position invariant degradations,
estimation of degradation function, inverse filtering, Wiener filtering, image
reconstruction from projection.

Unit-V
Image Compression
Fundamentals of data compression: basic compression methods: Huffman
coding, Golomb coding, LZW coding, Run-Length coding, Symbol based coding.
Digital image watermarking, representation and description- minimum perimeter
polygons algorithm (MPP).

References
1. Gonzalez and Woods: Digital Image Processing, Pearson Education.
2. Anil Jain: Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing, PHI Learning.
3. Annadurai: Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing, Pearson Education.
4. Sonka, Hlavac and Boyle: Digital Image Processing and Computer Vision, Cengage
Learning.
5. Chanda and Majumder: Digital Image Processing and Analysis, PHI Learning.
6. Jayaraman, Esakkirajan and Veerakumar: Digital Image Processing, TMH.
7. William K. Pratt, Digital Image Processing, Wiley India.
 Unit 1
Introduction to Digital Signal
Processing
Image
A two-dimensional function, f(x, y), where x and y
are spatial (plane) coordinates, and the amplitude of
f at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is called the
intensity or gray level of the image at that point.

2D function
Spatial coordinates
Amplitude ↔ Intensity or gray level

All natural images are analogue (in terms of signal

processing) , continuous (in terms of mathematics)
and generally infinite. Digital images are discrete and
finite.
Digital Image
When x, y, and the amplitude values of f are all finite,
discrete quantities, we call the image a digital image.

Digital Image Processing

The field of processing digital images by means of a
digital computer.

Pixels
Finite elements which compose a digital image, with a
particular location and value.
#picture-element #image-elements #pels
EM Vision

•Unlike humans imaging machines cover almost

the entire EM spectrum, ranging from gamma to
radio waves .

•Out of this EM spectrum, we are sensitive to its

visible part only.

•Thus machine vision opens a wide range of

applications and enables numerous possibilities.

•The principles of DIP extends upto computer vision

and AI. Therefore there is need for distinction
between these areas.
Digital Image Processing
Concerns with the transformation of an image to a
digital format & its processing by a computer or by
dedicated H/W; both i/p & o/p are digital images.

Digital Image Analysis

Concerns with the description & recognition of the
image contents – i/p is a digital image, the o/p is a
symbolic description.

Computer Vision
Uses digital electronics to emulate human vision,
including learning, making inferences, & taking
actions
There are no clear-cut boundaries in the continuum from image
processing at one end to computer vision at the other.

Low-level : Input & output are images

Primitive operations such as image preprocessing to reduce
noise, contrast enhancement & image sharpening

Mid-level : Input may be images, output could be attributes

extracted from those images (e.g., edges, contours, and the
identity of individual objects)
• Segmentation
• Description of objects
• Classification of individual objects

High-level : involves “making sense” of an ensemble of

recognized objects, as in image analysis, and, at the far end of
the continuum, performing the cognitive functions normally
associated with vision.
Fields Using Digital Image Processing

• Aerospace Imaging
• Medical Imaging
• Digital Photography
• Surveillance Systems
• Security and Intelligence
• Remote Sensing

One of the simplest ways to develop a basic

understanding of the extent of image processing
applications is to categorize images according to their
source.
•Digital images can be categorized according to their
source (visual, X-ray, Infrared, ultraviolet, ultrasound,
etc.)

•The principal energy sources for images include

electromagnetic energy spectrum.

•Images based on radiation from the electromagnetic

spectrum are the most frequently used.

•Other important sources of energy include acoustic,

ultrasonic, and electronic
Electromagnetic waves can be understood as
propagating sinusoidal waves of varying wavelengths
on they can be thought of as streams of massless
particles, each travelling in a wavelike pattern and
moving at the speed of light.

Each massless particle contains a certain amount

(bundle) of energy. Which is called as photon.
Gamma-Ray Imaging
X-Ray Imaging
Imaging in the Ultraviolet Band

Applications of ultraviolet “light” are

varied.

They include lithography, industrial

inspection, microscopy, lasers,
biological imaging, and astronomical
observations.
Imaging in the Visible and Infrared Bands

It finds applications in light

microscopy, astronomy, remote
sensing, industry, and law
enforcement.
One of the major area of visual processing is remote
sensing, which usually includes several bands in the
visual and infrared regions of the spectrum.
Imaging in the Microwave Band

The dominant application of imaging in the microwave

band is radar.
Imaging in the Radio Band
In medicine radio waves are used in magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI).
Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing
Image acquisition is the first process in DIP in
which image is captured by a sensor (such as a
camera) & digitized.

Sometimes acquisition could be as simple as being

given an image that is already in digital form.

Generally, the image acquisition stage involves

preprocessing, such as scaling.
Image enhancement is among the simplest and
most appealing areas of DIP.

Enhancement is to bring out detail that is obscured,

or simply to highlight certain features of interest in an
image.

Enhancement is a very subjective area of image

processing.
Image restoration is an area that also deals with
improving the appearance of an image.

In contrast to enhancement, which is subjective, image

restoration is objective process.

Restoration techniques tend to be based on

mathematical or probabilistic models of image
degradation
Color image processing is an area that has been
gaining in importance because of the significant
increase in the use of digital images. Colour Models
used are RGB, CMY, CMYK, HSI.

Wavelets are important concept in DIP as they

provide the foundation for representing images in
various degrees of resolution.

Morphological processing deals with tools for

extracting image components that
are useful in the representation
and description of shape.
Segmentation procedures partition an image into its
constituent parts or objects.
Recognition is the process
that assigns a label to an object
based on its descriptors.

Compression, as the name

implies, deals with
techniques for reducing the
storage require to save an
image.
Converts the raw data from segmentation to a form
suitable for computer processing:
Representation : It make a decision whether the data
should be represented as a boundary or as a complete
region.
1. Boundary representation : focus on external shape
characteristics, such as corners.
2. Region representation: focus on internal properties,
such as texture or skeleton shape.

Description(feature selection), deals with extracting

attributes.
Components of an Image Processing System
Image acquisition: This is carried out by sensors.
Sensing involves 2 elements, namely
Physical device that is sensitive to the energy radiated by the
object we wish to image
Digitizer that converts the o/p of the physical sensing device
into digital form

Specialized image processing hardware consists of a digitizer

& an ALU used for performing arithmetic or logical operations
on the image.

Computer is used for performing off line image processing

tasks. Computer can range from a general PC to a super
computer

Software for image processing consists of specialized modules

that perform specific tasks on the image, with options for users
to write code.
A well-designed package also includes the capability for the user to
write code that, as a minimum, Sophisticated software packages
allow the integration of those modules and general-purpose
software commands from at least one computer language.

Mass Storage is essential in image processing applications

Short Term Storage: required during processing. Frame Buffers

that can store 1 or 2 images at a time & allows image zooming,
scrolling & panning are used.

On Line Storage: for fast recall. Magnetic disks or optical media

storage is used.

Archival Storage: for infrequent access. Magnetic tapes & optical

disks are used.
Image Displays consists of monitors.

Hardcopy devices for recording images include laser

printers, film cameras, heat sensitive devices, inkjet
units and digital units such as optical & CDROM disks.

Networking is vital function, because it is necessary to

transmit images. During transmission BW is the key
factor to be considered, situation is getting better with
OFC and broadband communications.
Digital Image Fundamentals
Elements of Visual Perception

•DIP is built on a foundation of mathematical and

probabilistic formulations.

•Nonetheless, human intuition and analysis play a

central role in the choice of one technique versus
another.

•It is ultimately based on subjective, visual judgments.

•Hence, we shall develop a basic understanding

of human visual perception.
Structure of the Human Eye

•It is nearly a sphere, with an average diameter of

approximately 20 mm.

•Three membranes enclose the eye: the cornea and

sclera outer cover; the choroid and the retina.

•Cornea is a tough, transparent tissue that covers the

anterior surface of the eye.

•Continuous with the cornea, the sclera is an opaque

membrane that encloses the remainder of the optic
globe.
Choroid

•The choroid lies directly below the sclera.

•This membrane contains a network of blood vessels

that serve as the major source of nutrition to the eye.

•Choroid coat is heavily pigmented, and hence helps to

reduce the amount of extraneous light entering the eye
and the backscatter within the optical globe.
Iris

•The central opening of the iris (the pupil) varies in

diameter from approximately 2 to 8 mm.

•Anterior extreme of the choroid is divided into the

ciliary body and the iris diaphragm.

•Iris diaphragm contracts or expands to control the

amount of light that enters the eye.
Lens

•Lens is made up of concentric layers of fibrous cells

and is suspended by fibers that attach to the ciliary
body.

•Contains 60 to 70% water, about 6% fat, and more

protein than any other tissue in the eye.

•Colored by a slightly yellow pigmentation that

increases with age.

•Absorbs approximately 8% of the visible light

spectrum, with relatively higher absorption at shorter
wavelengths.
Retina

•Retina lines the inside of the wall’s entire posterior

portion.

•When the eye is properly focused, light from an object

outside the eye is imaged on the retina.

•Pattern vision is afforded by the distribution of discrete

light receptors over the surface of the retina.

•There are two classes of receptors: cones and rods.

Cone Cells
•The cones in each eye number between 6 and 7 million.

•They are located primarily in the central portion of the

retina, called the fovea, and are highly sensitive to color

•Humans can resolve fine details with these cones

largely because each one is connected to its own nerve
end.

•Muscles controlling the eye rotate the eyeball until the

image of an object of interest falls on the fovea.

•Cone vision is called photopic or bright-light vision

Rod Cells
•Some 75 to 150 million are distributed over the retinal
surface.

•Several rods are connected to a single nerve end

reduce the amount of detail discernible by these
receptors.

•Give a general, overall picture of the field of view.

•They are not involved in color vision and are sensitive

to low levels of illumination.

•Scotopic or dim-light vision

•Blind spot: the absence of receptors area.
•Receptor density is measured in degrees from the fovea.
•Cones are most dense in the center of the retina (in the area
of the fovea)
•Rods increase in density from the center out to approx. 20°
off axis & then decrease in density out to the extreme
periphery of the retina.
Image Formation in the Eye
15/100=h/17 or h=2.55 mm
Human Perception Phenomena
Image Sensing and Acquisition

Images are generated by the combination of an

“illumination” source and the reflection or absorption
of energy from that source by the elements of the
“scene” being imaged.

Illumination : EM waves, ultrasound, computer

generated illumination pattern ....

Scene: any familiar objects, Molecules, buried rock

formations, human brain ...
Idea

Incoming energy is transformed into a voltage

● Combination of input electrical power and sensor
material that is responsive to the particular type of
energy being detected.

● The output voltage waveform is the response of the

sensors.

● A digital quantity is obtained from each sensor by

digitizing its response.
Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor
For imaging there has to be relative displacements in
both the x and y-directions between the sensor and the
area to be imaged.

● A film negative is mounted onto a drum whose

mechanical rotation provides displacement in one
dimension

● The single sensor is mounted on a lead screw that

provides motion in the perpendicular direction.

● It is used in high-precision scanning.

● The similar arrangement in 2-d is called as

microdensitometer.
Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips
● Such sensors are used more frequently than single
sensors.

● It consists of an inline arrangement of sensors in the

form of a sensor strip.

● The strip provides imaging elements in one direction.

● Motion perpendicular to the strip provides imaging in

the other direction

● Sensing devices with 4000 or more in-line sensors are

possible. Used in most flat bed scanners, airborne
applications
Image Acquisition Using Sensor Arrays
● Individual sensors arranged in the form of a 2-D
array.

● Packaged in rugged arrays of 4000 * 4000

elements or more.

● CCD sensors are used widely in digital cameras

and other light sensing instruments.

● The response of each sensor is proportional to the

integral of the light energy projected onto the
surface of the sensor.

● Noise reduction is achieved by letting the sensor

integrate the input light signal over minutes or
even hours.

● Since array is 2D, complete image can be

obtained and hence motion of elements is not
A Simple Image Formation Model

● Digital images are denoted by two-dimensional functions of

the form f(x, y).

●The value or amplitude of f at spatial coordinates (x, y) is a

positive scalar quantity.

●When an image is generated from a physical process, its values

are proportional to energy radiated by a physical source.

●f(x, y)must be nonzero and finite i.e,

0 < f(x,y) < ∞

● Most of the images we discuss about are monochrome

images.
Gray Level

● We call the intensity of a monochrome image at any coordinates

(x0,y0) the gray level (l) of the image at that point. That is,

l = f(x0,y0)

l lies in the range Lmin <=l<=Lmax

● The interval [Lmin , Lmax] is called the gray scale.

● This interval takes values [0, L­1], where l=0 is considered

black and l=(L­1) is considered white on the gray scale.

● All intermediate values are shades of gray varying from black

to white.
Image Sampling and Quantization

•The output of most sensors is a continuous voltage waveform.

•Whose amplitude and spatial behavior are related to the

physical phenomenon being sensed.

•To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous

sensed data into digital form.

•This involves two processes: sampling and quantization.

•Digitizing the coordinate values is called sampling.

•Digitizing the amplitude values is called quantization.

Representing Digital Images

The result of sampling and quantization is a matrix of real

numbers.
•The image can be plotted as
• A Surface
• An intensity array
• Matrix (numerical array)

•The origin is considered as top left corner of the image.

•Such representation is similar to TV monitor.

•Each element of this matrix array is called an image element,

picture element, pixel, or pel.

•Matrix representation has an advantage in which image can be

represented as a vector V of size MN*1
Image Digitization requires decision to be made on 3 quantities
M,N and L.

Where M and N are size and L denotes intensity values.

There is no constraint on M and N but

L = 2k

Due to storage and quantizing hardware considerations.

Intensity could be [0, L-1]. It is called as dynamic range

Spatial and Intensity Resolution
•Spatial resolution is the smallest discernible detail in an image.

•Sampling is the principal factor determining the spatial

resolution of an image.

•Resolution is the smallest number of discernible line pairs per

unit distance or dots per unit distance.

•Suppose that we construct a chart with vertical lines of width W,

with the space between the lines also having width W.

•A line pair consists of one such line and its adjacent space.

•Thus, the width of a line pair is 2W, and there are 1/2W line pairs
per unit distance.
•If width of line is 0.1 mm there are
5 line pairs per mm.

•A widely used definition of image

resolution is the largest number of
discernible line pairs per unit distance
(e.g., 100 line pairs per mm).

•Dots per unit distance is a measure of image resolution used

commonly in the printing and publishing industry.

•Mostly, it is expressed as dots per inch (dpi).

•For an idea of quality, newspapers are printed with a resolution

of 75 dpi, magazines at 133 dpi, glossy brochures at 175 dpi, and
the book is printed at 2400 dpi.
•Intensity resolution refers to the smallest discernible
change in gray level .

•Considerable quality can be accomplished regarding the

number of samples used to generate a digital image, but this
is not true for the number of gray levels.

•The most common number is 8 bits, and 16 bits being used

in some applications where enhancement of specific gray
level ranges is necessary.

•Insufficient of intensity levels can cause an effect called as

false contouring in smooth area of intensity.

•The effect is shown in next example.

Image Interpolation
•Interpolation is a basic tool used extensively in tasks such as
zooming, shrinking, rotating, and geometric corrections.

•We shall discuss interpolation and apply it to image resizing

(shrinking and zooming).

•Interpolation is the process of using known data to estimate

values at unknown locations.

•One of the method is nearest neighbor interpolation as it

assigns to each new location the intensity of its nearest neighbor
in the original image.

•This approach is simple but it has the tendency to produce

undesirable artifacts, such as severe distortion of straight edges.
•A better approach is bilinear interpolation, in which we use the
four nearest neighbors to estimate the intensity at a given
location.

•Let (x, y) denote the coordinates of the location to which we

want to assign an intensity value, and let v(x, y) denote that
intensity value.

v(x. y) = ax + by + cxy + d

where the four coefficients are determined from the four

equations in four unknowns that can be written using the four
nearest neighbors of point (x. y).
•The next level of complexity is bicubic interpolation, which
involves the sixteen nearest neighbors of a point.

•The intensity value assigned to point (x, y) is obtained using the

equation

where the sixteen coefficients are determined from the sixteen

equations in sixteen unknowns that can be written using the
sixteen nearest neighbors of point (x, y).

•Generally, bicubic interpolation does a better job of preserving

fine detail than its bilinear counterpart.

•Bicubic interpolation is the standard used in commercial image

editing programs.
Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)

4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).

4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).

8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)
 N4(p)

ND(p)

N8(p)
•Concept of Connectivity between pixels simplifies digital
image concepts such as regions and boundaries.

•To establish if two pixels are connected, it must be determined

if they are neighbors and if their gray levels satisfy a specified
criterion of similarity.

• Let us use V to denote the set of graylevel values used to define

adjacency.

•For a binary image it could be V={0,1}, V={1} and V={0}.

•For example, in the adjacency of pixels with a range of possible

gray-level values 0 to 255, set V could be any subset of these 256
values.
We consider three types of adjacency:

1. 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4-

adjacent if q is in the set N4(p)

2. 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8-

adjacent if q is in the set N8(p)

3. m-adjacency (mixed adjacency): Two pixels p and q with values

from V are m-adjacent if
i. q is in N4(p), or
ii. q is in ND(p) and the set “N4(p) ∩ N4(q)” has no pixels
whose values are from V