HVAC

SYSTEMS
1.0 Brief Story about
the Beginning of Air-
conditioning by Willis
de Havilland Carrier

2
2.0 Some Important Definitions
2.1 Air-Conditioning –
the control of temperature, humidity,
cleanliness and motion of air
in an enclosed space

For the comfort of the occupants of the space

For the treatment of diseases

3
 For the very exacting control of temperature
and relative humidity, other than for comfort,
in many manufacturing processes such as in
pharmaceuticals, electronics and
semiconductors, and many others

For preserving important documents, valuable

paintings, and other valuable treasures against
the ravages of environmental pollution and
vagaries of the weather

For many, many other purposes

4
Air-Conditioning
is made
possible by
refrigerating the

AIR.
5
 2.2 Refrigeration -
the process of absorbing
heat where heat is
unwanted, and discharging
that heat where it is
unobjectionable.

6
 Aside from the
mechanical components
that produce refrigeration,

another very important

component
is necessary,

and this is the refrigerant.

7
Figure 1

8
Figure 1a

9
 2.3 Refrigerant –
a chemical substance
that has the characteristics
of absorbing heat at a low
pressure and temperature,
and discharging that heat
at a high pressure
and temperature.

10
Figure 2

11
 2.4 Psychrometrics –
a branch of physics that is
defined as the science of
moist air properties and
processes which is used to
illustrate and analyze air-
conditioning cycles

12
 The composition of dry air by volume is:

79.08% Nitrogen (N)

20.95% Oxygen (O)
0.93% Argon (Ar)
0.03% Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
0.01% Other Gases

Dry air has the capacity of absorbing water vapor in

amounts depending on the temperature of the air.
Since the air around us is not really dry but is moist
or it contains some water vapor, technically
speaking, the air we breathe contains superheated
steam.

13
Figure 3

14
3.0 Sources of Air-Conditioning
Loads or Heat Loads
3.1 Sensible Heat
Direct sunlight or solar heat

Transmitted heat due to temperature

difference of the air between outside and
inside across walls, glass windows, roofs and
ceiling, and partitions

People, the sensible component of the heat

they produce

15
 Lighting

Appliances such as computers, printers, motors,

etc.

Outside air for ventilation, its sensible heat

component due to its elevated temperature
above room air

Air infiltration from the outside, its sensible

component

16
 3.2 Latent Heat

People, the latent heat component of the

heat they produce

Exposed water in the space

Steam

Air infiltration from the outside, its

latent component
17
 3.3 Average Air Conditioning Loads of Various Spaces

APPLICATION SQUARE METER PER TON

1. Residences:
Living / Dining 20 – 22
Bedrooms 22 – 25

2. Offices:
General Offices 20 – 22
Conference Room 12 – 14

3. Banking Areas 16 – 18
4. Theaters, Auditoriums 0.10 – 0.12 (ton/seat)

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5. Eateries:
Fast Foods 8 – 10
Ordinary restaurant, Coffee shop, Canteen 10 – 12
Fine Dining 12 – 14

6. Classrooms, Training rooms 16 – 17

7. Shopping Centers; Dept. Stores

Main Floors 16 – 18
Upper Floors 20 – 22
Grocery Store 20 – 22

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8. Hotels
Main Lobby 17 – 19
Function Rooms 8 – 10
Banquet Hall / Ballroom 6–8
Guest Rooms 18 – 20
Rental Shops 16 – 18

9. Hospitals:
Patients Room 20 – 22
Operating rooms / Delivery Rooms 6–8
ICU / Recovery Room 12 – 14
Laboratories 10 – 12
Emergency Room 10 – 12
Nurse Station 13 – 15
Doctor’s Clinic 13 – 15

20
10. Manufacturing:
Semi – conductors 8 – 10
Pharmaceuticals 8 – 10
Assembly areas & Light Manufacturing 8 – 12

11. Call Centers:

Main Production Areas 15 – 16
Server room / LAN room 4 – 10
UPS room 8 – 10
Training room 16 – 17

21
4.0 Types of Systems

Two types of systems

are in use:
the direct expansion
or the DX type
and the
chilled water type.
22
 4.1 DX System

In the DX system, the refrigerant in the

evaporator tubes cools directly the air flowing
across the tubes. They are mostly used in small
installations where the compressor, together
with its condenser, is connected directly to an
air handling unit or fan coil unit working
together on a one-on-one basis. This has been
the traditional DX system configuration. The
room air-conditioner and the popularly known
split type unit are DX type units.

23
Figure 4

24
 More recently, however, due to
advancements in the art and
manufacturing technology, the so-called
Variable Refrigerant Volume (VRV) or
Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) units
were introduced into the market and
there are now several installations of this
type worldwide including here locally. In
this variation of the DX System, one
compressor and condenser combination
(or condensing unit) can be connected to
several fan coil units.

25
Figure 4a

26
 4.2 Chilled Water System

In the chilled water system, the refrigerant

cools the water first and in turn, the
water is circulated through several air
handling units to cool the air. It is
sometimes called “indirect system”. This
type of system is found in large
installations such as buildings, shopping
centers, manufacturing plants, hospitals,
schools, etc.
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Figure 5

28
 5.0 Equipment
5.1 Compressors

They are manufactured in either open type or

hermetic construction. In the open type, the
compressor and the drive motor are in separate
enclosures and they are mechanically linked
together through a flexible coupling. In the
hermetic type, the compressor and the drive
motor are in one single enclosure and they are
linked together through a common shaft.

29
 The common types are as follows:

5.1.1 Reciprocating Type

It comes in either open or hermetic

construction. It is manufactured from the
smallest to about 150 tons capacities. In
up to 10 tons capacities, they operate up
to 3500 rpm. Larger sizes are designed to
operate at 1750 rpm. They are used in
either DX or Chilled Water Systems.
30
Figure 6

31
 5.1.2 Rotary Type

This is a small compressor used mostly in

refrigerators, room type air-conditioners, and
car air-conditioners. It comes either in open or
hermetic type construction.

32
 5.1.3 Centrifugal Type

It comes in either open or hermetic construction.

It has very few moving parts and it operates at
high speeds, even up to 12000 rpm.

In both cases, it comes factory-assembled

together with its matching condenser and water
chiller. Centrifugal chillers are manufactured in
single sizes up to 1500 tons capacity for the
hermetic unit and up to 10000 tons for the open
type. They are used only in centralized chilled
water systems.
33
Figure 7a

34
Figure 7b

35
Figure 7c

36
 5.1.4 Rotary Screw Compression

This type of compressor has also positive

displacement, just like the reciprocating type.
On the other hand, just like the centrifugal
type, it also has few moving parts. However, it
operates only at 3500 rpm. It is manufactured
in single sizes at up to 500 tons capacity. It can
be used for either DX or Chilled Water Systems.
It also comes in open or hermetic enclosures. It
is the latter that is used more in air-
conditioning applications. On the other hand,
the open type is mostly used in low
temperature refrigeration.
37
Figure 8

38
 5.1.5 Scroll Compressor

This compressor is the latest development

in compressor technology. It is also of the
positive displacement type and has been
found to be reliable. It comes only in
hermetic construction. It can be used in
DX or Chilled Water Applications.

39
Figure 9

40
 5.2 Condensers

These usually come in two kinds, water-cooled and air-

cooled.

5.2.1 Water-Cooled Condensers

A water-cooled condenser consists of a bundle of tubes

(usually copper) enclosed in a cylindrical steel shell
with cast steel condenser heads at each end. Water
flows inside the tubes and the hot refrigerant gas to be
condensed is outside the tubes. Cooling water is
recirculated through a cooling tower where the air-
conditioning heat and heat of compression is finally
rejected to the atmosphere.

41
Figure 10

42
 5.2.2 Air-Cooled Condensers

An air-cooled condenser is constructed of copper

tubes with aluminum fins to enhance heat
transfer and increase the condensing surface.
The tubes are arranged in rows and are
assembled into a galvanized or corrosion-
protected steel casing. Within the casing is a
fan or a number of fans, depending upon the
condenser size. The condenser assembly may be
arranged for horizontal installation with the
fans discharging air upward or for vertical
installation with the fans discharging air
horizontally.

43
Figure 11

44
 5.2.3 Cooling Towers

Cooling towers are mechanical draft, where

atmospheric air is forced through the tower fill
surface with fans, usually of the propeller type.

The fill or heat transfer surface, thru which the

water drips down, is made of wood slats or
plastic material.

Cooling towers are either of the counter flow type

or cross-flow type.
45
In the counter flow type, the cooling air enters at
the bottom of the fill and flows upward thru it
in strict counter flow against the water that
drips down.

In the cross-flow type, the cooling air enters at

the sides horizontally and flows at right angle
with the dripping down water.

In most cases, the towers are induced draft,

meaning, the fans are installed at the top of
the tower structure sucking the cooling air thru
the fill.

46
In the forced draft tower, the fans are installed at
the lower side of the tower to force the cooling
air thru the fill. Forced draft fans can only be
adapted in counter flow towers.

The configuration of the cooling towers may

either be rectangular or circular.

Fans are either driven thru gear reducers or belts

and pulley combination.

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Figure 12

48
5.2.4 Fluid Coolers or Chillers
They are constructed
almost similarly as
water cooled condensers,
shell and tube.

There are two types

of fluid coolers:
the dry expansion type
and the flooded type.

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 a. Dry Expansion Type

The evaporating refrigerant in the dry expansion

type is inside the tubes and the liquid to be
cooled is outside the tubes. A thermostatic
expansion valve with several small distributor
tubes distributes the expanding refrigerant to
the tube bundle of the cooler. This type of
cooler is common to small chiller packages.

50
Figure 13

51
 b. Flooded Type

The tubes in the shell in the flooded type are

submerged in a liquid refrigerant and cooling
is affected with the evaporation of the
refrigerant that is subjected to the suction of
the compressor. The liquid refrigerant level
inside the shell is controlled by a float valve.
The fluid or water to be cooled flows inside
the tubes. This type of cooler is standard in
large chiller packages.

52
Figure 7a

53
 5.3 Equipment Selection
In air conditioning and refrigeration systems there are two
modes of condensing; air cooled and water cooled.
Both modes have their own advantages and
disadvantages.

A. Reciprocating and Scroll Compressors

1. Air cooled condensing is usually employed in small
installations like window type units and packaged
units of sizes up to 30 tons capacity in single model.
For air conditioning levels, the specific compressor
input is 1.60 kw/ton. These type of unit lend itself to
totally independent energy metering and its is
popular with condominium developers and owners.
For high rise buildings, however, with very limited
machine spaces, the air cooled condensers pose some
serious problems on unit locations to prevent
condenser air short circuiting.

54
 2. Water cooled condensing has the
principal advantage of better
efficiency resulting lower average
specific energy input of the
compressor at about, 0.90 kw/ton.
These units are used mostly in central
type installations.

Both air cooled and water cooled units

can be employed in either direct
expansion and chilled water systems.

55
 B. Centrifugal Units
These are the most efficient units with an
average power input of 0.55 kw/ton at
air conditioning levels. They come in
single sizes from 150 to 10,000 tons
capacity. They can only be used in
chilled water systems. The centrifugal
compressor has excellent capacity
unloading characteristics.

56
 C. Screw Type Units
This is a relatively new type of compressor. It is a
cross between the reciprocating and
centrifugal compressor. It has positive
displacement like the reciprocating and has
good capacity modulation like the centrifugal
machine. It can be air cooled or water cooled
and it can be used for either direct expansion
or chilled water systems. It comes in sizes
from 40 tons to 750 tons capacity. Its power
input is about 0.75kw/ton at air conditioning
levels.
57
 D. Absorption Type
This is a type of equipment that uses steam
or high temperature water as motive
power and it is, therefore, used mostly
where these media are available. It is
applicable for chilled water systems only.
It comes in single sizes from 90 to 1500
tons capacity. Per ton of nominal cooling
capacity its steam consumption is about
10 pounds per hour at 115 psi pressure for
double stage models and about 18 pounds
per hour at 20 psi pressure for single
stage models.
58
6.0 Air Distribution

Air distribution in the

air-conditioned space is
accomplished through

constant volume air supply

or through

variable air volume (VAV)

boxes.
59
 6.1 Constant Air Volume Method

In the constant air volume method, which is still

much employed today, the rate of air flow into
the space is kept the same no matter what the
cooling demand is in a particular room or zone.
The result is that sometimes rooms are too
warm or too cold depending on the occupancy
or where the sun exposure is at any particular
time.

60
 6.2 Variable Air Volume Distribution System

To improve on the above system, the variable air

volume (VAV) distribution system was
introduced, and this is now in use in high-end
office buildings. In this method, an automated
volume damper is provided upstream of a
supply outlet to a room or supply duct branch
to a zone. The damper actuator is controlled by
a room temperature sensor. The damper is
modulated to open or to throttle down to
supply more air or less air into a room or zone
to keep the temperature almost constant no
matter what the occupancy or sun exposure the
room or zone has.

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Figure 14a

62
Figure 14b

63
 6.3 Air Duct Design
There are two (2) generally used methods
in air duct design:

6.3.1 Equal – friction: The principle of this

method is to make pressure loss per unit
of duct length the same for the entire
system.

64
 6.3.2 Static – regain method: This is a design
procedure in which the reduction in air velocity
after each branch take-off that results in a gain
in static pressure is made used of. This regain
in static pressure is taken advantage of to
offset the pressure loss in the succeeding duct
section. This method is employed mostly in
large systems where high duct velocities are
adopted. It results in lower fan horsepower.

65
 6.3.3 Because it is simpler and easier to
apply, the equal friction method is more
widely used.
Enclosed herewith is an equal-friction
chart used for sizing air ducts.
Also enclosed is a table for recommended
and maximum velocities for air ducts and
other components of conventional
systems.

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DUCT DESIGN CHART

67
 Recommended and Maximum Duct Velocities
For Conventional System
Recommended Velocities, Fpm
Schools,
Designation Residences Theaters, Industrial
Public Buildings
Buildings
Outdoor Air Intakes 500 500 500
Filters 250 300 350
Cooling Coils 450 500 600
Air Washers 500 500 500
Fan Outlets 100 - 1600 1300 - 2000 1600 - 2400
Main Ducts 700 – 900 1000 – 1300 1200 – 1800
Branch Ducts 600 600 – 900 800 – 1000
Branch Risers 500 600 - 700 800

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 Maximum Velocities, Fpm
Schools,
Designation Theaters, Industrial
Residences Public Buildings
Buildings
Outdoor Air Intakes 800 900 1200
Filters 300 350 350
Cooling Coils 450 500 600
Air Washers 500 500 500
Fan Outlets 1700 1500 - 2200 1700 – 2800
Main Ducts 800 – 1200 1100 – 1600 1300 – 2200
Branch Ducts 700 – 1000 800 – 1300 1000 – 1800
Branch Risers 650 - 800 800 - 1200 1000 - 1600

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7.0 Chilled Water Distribution
Sometime in the near past it has been discovered
that economy in chilled water pumping energy
can be realized by varying the speed or RPM of
the pump with the use of a variable frequency
drive motor controller based on cooling
demand. This method neatly makes use of one
of the affinity laws for pumps, namely:

BHP1 = GPM1 3

BHP2 GPM2
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 Very seldom is a chilled water plant 100%
loaded. Most of the time, the load is only
about 70% (or even less) of design
capacity and therefore, only 70% of the
design chilled water flow rate need to be
supplied to the system. Following the
above equation, if the flow is reduced
down to 70%, the pump power will be
reduced down to the cube of 70% or down
to 34.3% of the original power, which is
very significant.

71
Figure 15

72
 8.0 Indoor Air Quality

8.1 Definition by ASHRAE

ASHRAE defines acceptable Indoor Air Quality as

“air in which there are no known contaminants
at harmful concentrations as determined by
cognizant authorities and with which a majority
(80% or more) of the people exposed do not
express dissatisfaction.” The absence of it may
result into the so-called sick building syndrome
or SBS.

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 8.2 Sources of Contaminants

Those generated within the space

Those that come with the fresh air supply such

as dusts, vehicular exhaust fumes, pollens, etc.

Miscellaneous organisms that breed within the

space due to high humidity – molds, mildew,
and fungi. They are the most harmful
contaminants. They can even be pathogenic or
can cause disease.

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8.3 Amount of Outside Air (OA) to be introduced
to the space

Before, it was only 10 CFM per person

Now, this was increased to 20 CFM per person

Recommended rates are meant to limit CO2

concentration in the space to 700 ppm above
the outside air CO2 level. Generally, outdoor
air CO2 level ranges from 300 to 500 ppm,
which means that the CO2 level in the space
must be between 1000 to 1200 ppm.

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 But the outside air is very expensive to
refrigerate down to the room dew point
temperature. For comfort conditioning at 75oF
and 50% RH, it takes about 100 Btu per hour to
refrigerate 1 CFM of OA. Example, in a space of
75 square meters, with 10 people needing 200
CFM of OA, 20,000 Btu per hour or 1.67 tons of
refrigeration is needed.

If investment would permit, an energy-saving

device such as an air-to-air Heat Exchanger may
be used. With an effectiveness of 60%, this load
could be reduced down to 12,000 Btu per hour.

76
9.0 Refrigerants, Ozone depletion,
Global Warming
9.1
In 1974, scientists theorized that CFC’s
(chlorofluorocarbons) posed a threat to the
ozone layer. This was verified by
measurements.

9.2
In 1986, it was concluded that CFC’s and global
warming and climate change are connected.

77
 9.3
In 1987, the Montreal protocol was convened by
the industrialized countries, and the
participants decided to restrict the use of
CFC’s, such as CFC – 11, 12, 113, 114 and 115.

9.4
In the year 2000, the production of CFC’s was
halted. Two (2) new refrigerants were invented
and these are:

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 9.4.1
HFC – 134a (tetrafluroethane). This is a
replacement for CFC – 12

9.4.2
HCFC – 123 (dichlorotrifluroethane). This is a
replacement for CFC – 11, 113, and 114. These
refrigerants are used in centrifugal chillers.

9.4.3
An existing refrigerant, R – 22, or HCFC – 22
(chlorodifluromethane) is still widely used
today.

79
 However, because of their
ozone depleting potential,
both HCFC – 22 and 123
will no longer be used
on new equipment manufactured
after January 1, 2010
in industrial countries.
It is safe to assume that
Third World Countries would be forced
to follow suit not very long
after that date.

80
 10.0 Thermal Energy Storage
System (TESS)
10.1
Reasons for adapting TESS

10.1.1
Where there is an incentive like lower
electric energy cost to shift high
electrical demand form on-peak hours to
off-peak hours to reduce strain on the
electric power plants.

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 10.1.2
There is a need to handle short duration but high-
cooling load requirements, such as churches,
auditoriums, etc.

10.1.3
Need to provide cooling for small after-office
hours loads such as restaurants, individual
offices and computer rooms.

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 10.2
Generally, there are two (2) types of TESS:

10.2.1
Liquid storage, primarily chilled water in
stratified type storage tanks.

10.2.2
Phase change, primarily ice. Ice is frozen during
off-peak hours and then melted for use during
the air-conditioning hours.

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 10.3
Because of smaller chiller plant size as compared to the
conventional system, TESS has the following
advantages:

10.3.1 On the part of the user:

The lower electric power demand would result in his

paying less transmission charge and distribution
charge.

Lower investment cost on electrical power feeders,

transformer and switch gear.

Smaller emergency Genset if 100% standby power is

desired.

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 10.3.2
On the part of the electric power providers, there
will be less strain on their power plants. Their
load factor would be high and they would have
better operating efficiency. Because of this,
they could even postpone adding new plant
capacities.

10.3.3
On the part of the country as a whole, the
improved operating efficiency will result in
reduced oil importation.

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 10.4
On the other hand, the disadvantages that have
to be shouldered by the user are the following:

- Higher investment cost

- May need additional operating
personnel due to longer operating
hours of the TESS.

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Figure 16

87
 11.0 Cogeneration
11.1
Cogeneration is defined as the sequential production of
electricity and useful thermal energy from a single
fuel source.

11.2
The thermal energy that is otherwise dissipated into
the atmosphere through the engine exhaust and
jacket cooling water is trapped to generate steam
and/or high temperature water.

88
Figure 17

89
 In air-conditioning
applications,
the generated steam
or hot water
isused
to power
an absorption-type
water chiller.

Figure 18

90
Figure 18

Back
91
 11.3
Normally, on straight electricity production, a
diesel-generating set has a thermal efficiency
of about 33%. In cogeneration for air-
conditioning purposes, the efficiency is
increased to about 42%.

11.4
On the other hand, based on straight electric
energy production, a gas turbine driven
generating set has a thermal efficiency of only
about 20%. With cogeneration for air-
conditioning, the efficiency is increased to
about 34%.

92
12.0 Some Energy-Saving Devices
in Air-Conditioning Systems
12.1
The air-to-air heat exchanger is constructed of
thin aluminum sheets coated with solid desicant
material corrugated to form a multitude of
narrow flutes through which streams of exhaust
air and outside air pass from opposite direction.
In the process, the cool exhaust air from the
air-conditioned spaces pre-cool the warm and
humid outside air.

93
Figure 19

94
This device, depending upon the ratio of outside
air intake to that of the exhaust air could save
about 50% of the energy required to cool the
required outside air required to the room dew
point condition.

This saving is very significant. For high density

occupancies such as in casinos, theaters,
auditoriums, restaurants or even offices where
outside air intake and exhaust can be
centralized, it is advisable that this device be
adapted.

95
 12.2
Heat reclaim from a refrigerant hot gas
desuperheater. The discharge gas from a
compressor is very hot. The available heat
energy from it, which would otherwise be
dissipated into the atmosphere, can be trapped
through a desuperheater to produce hot water
of around 130oF

In many instances, the available heat can fill the

entire hot water requirements of hotels,
motels, and hospitals. In most instances, it is
also sufficient to supply the reheat
requirements of the air-conditioning systems of
some manufacturing processes.

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Figure 20

97
 Additional
Information

98
Figure 21

99
Figure 22

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101
- end -
102