Introduction to

human physiology

DR/ MOHAMED HASSAN

doctorpioneer@yahoo.com
 Introduction
 Physiology is the study of normal body functions
of a living organism and its component parts,
including all chemical and physical processes.
 The body is structurally organized into a whole
functional unit.
 Cell:
 It is the basic unit of both structure and
function. All cells perform certain basic functions:
e.g. Getting nutrients, eliminating wastes,
synthesizing cellular components, respond to
changes in the surrounding environments,
controlling exchange of materials and reproduce
 Tissues:
groups of cells of similar specializations
 Organs:
 Two or more types of tissues organized
to form certain function
 e.g. Stomach
 Systems:
 Collection of organs perform related
functions
 e.g. Digestive system: The mouth,
stomach, and small intestine are some of
the organs of the digestive system.
Kadol Lake
 Homeostasis

Maintenance of relatively stable

internal environment.
• The body cells are bathed in a fluid medium, the
Extracellular fluid (ECF),in which are the ions
and nutrients that are needed by the cells for
maintenance of cellular life.

• The ECF is called internal environment of the

Body.

• It is essential to maintain constant conditions in

this internal environment, since normal cell
function depends upon this constancy.
• The maintenance of static, or constant
conditions in the internal environment is known as
Homeostasis.
• The Advantages of Homeostasis:
• (l) Increased chances of survivaI
• (2) allows freedom to work and live in a
great variety of climatic conditions.
• (3) permit proper functioning of the brain.
• Homeostasis is not unlimited,
• Almost all diseases are failures of homeostasis.

• Body depends on homeostatic mechanisms to keep

the constancy of the internal environment against
changes.

• Essentially all the organs and tissues of the

body perform functions that help to maintain
constant conditions in the internal environment for
cells to continue their normal function.
• Basic components of
Homeostatic
mechanism
• 1- The receptors detect changes in the
environment both outside and inside the body and
provide information on which the action of the
control center is based.
• 2- The control integration center receives the
signal information from the sensors about the
change . Then, the integrator compares the
sensor's input and the set point. then generates the
signal necessary for correction of the error
• 3- effector organs responds to signal from the
center to correct the error.
• Most control systems
of the body act by a
process of negative
feed back.
• {The effect opposite
the change}
 Positive Feedback " Vicious
circles"
• Here, the response is in the same direction as the
stimulus, and the result is a vicious circles.
• Positive feed back leads to instability and often
to death because+ve feed back mechanism
exaggerates any change and usually the input and
output enhance each other.
• It represents failure of Homeostatic
mechanisms, However it can sometimes be useful
e.g . Uterine contactions during childbirth .
 Membrane Transport

 The ways of moving substances

into or out of a cell can be classified
into two processes:

 Passive process (Down hill) : Do not

require energy.
 1 - Simple Diffusion: Is the movement of particles
(from area of high concentration to area of lower
concentration) (down concentration gradient)
 Example: movement of oxygen, carbon dioxide,
across the cell membrane.

 2 - Facilitated diffusion: Is the movement of the

substances across the cell membrane from area of
high concentration to area of lower concentration
(down concentration gradient or with concentration)
with the help of carrier proteins in the membrane.

 Example: glucose
 3- Osmosis: Is the net diffusion of
water through a selectively permeable
membrane from the side of high
concentration of water to the side of
low concentration of water, until
osmotic equilibrium occurs.
 B - Active Process: (up hill):
 Movement of substances against
their concentration gradients.Such
movement requires energy provided
by ATP.
 There are two types of active
mechanisms:
 1- Active transport: Two types:
 a) Primary active transport: It is a
unidirectional movement of
substances against concentration or
electric gradients.
 It needs energy which is provided
directly from hydrolysis of ATP.
 Example: Na+ - K+ pump (Na+ -
K+ ATPase) in cell membrane
 b)Secondary Active Transport: 2 types:
 Co-transport or symport:
 Substances that transported by primary active
transport can pull other substances at the same
direction.
 Example: Transport of glucose and sodium ions in
the same direction in the small intestine.

 Counter- transport or antiport:

 Substances that transported by primary active
transport can pull other substances at opposite
direction.
 Example: Transport of calcium and hydrogen ions
along with sodium .
 2-Bulk transport :
 Transport of large
molecules:
 1- Endocytosis: Two
types
 a- Phagocytosis (cell
eating): Is the process of
engulfing particles such
as bacteria
 b- Pinocytosis (cell
drinking): Is the process
of taking in droplets of
extracellular fluid.
 2- Exocytosis: Is the
process of discharging
material from a cell.
 Body Fluids

• The cell which is the smallest living unit in the

body exists in a fluid from which it takes up O2
and nutrients and termed body fluids.
• Body fluids are divided into two compartments:
• 1. Intracellular.
• 2. Extracellular:
• a. interstitial b. Intravascular.
• In man → 60% of the body weight is water .
• A 70 Kg adult man → has about 42 litres of
water total body water (TBW), distributed into 2
major fluids compartments:
• 1. 40 % (2/3) Intracellular fluid (ICF) [28 L]
• 2. 20 % (1/3) Extracellular fluid (ECF) [14 L]
• which is further subdivided into:
• a. Interstitial Fluid: between the cells (tissue fluid)
[11 L]
• b. Intravascular Fluid: in vascular system (blood
plasma)
[3 L]
• *Fluid Balance: Fluid intake = Fluid Output.

• Normal fluid intake - 2.3 L /day.

• -By drinking
• Source of water: -From foods
• -By oxidation of food stuffs

• -By kidneys in urine (1.4 L)

• Fluid output -By lungs (evaporation)(700ml)

• (about 2.3L/day) - By sweating (I00 ml)

• - In faeces (100 ml)
 FACTORS AFFECTING
Total Body Water
• varies depending on body fat:
– infant: 73%
– male adult: 60%
– female adult: 40-50%
– effects of obesity
– Old age 45%
 TOTAL BODY WATER(TBW)

• 60% OF THE BODY WEIGHT IN

ADULT MALE
• 50% OF THE BODY WEIGHT IN
ADULT FEMALE
 COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS
CATIONS (mmol/l) Plasma Interstitial Intracellular
Na 142 139 14
K 4.2 4.0 140
Ca 1.3 1.2 0
Mg 0.8 0.7 20
ANIONS (mmol/l)

Cl 108 108 4.0

HCO3 24.0 28.3 10
Protein 1.2 0.2 4.0
HPO4 2.0 2.0 11
 FLUID COMPARTMENTS

EXTRA CELLUAR INTRA CELLULAR

FLUID FLUID

INTERSTITIAL TRANSCELLULAR
PLASMA
FLUID FLUID

CSF
Intra ocular
Pleural
Peritoneal
Synovial
Digestive Secretions
VOLUME OF BODY FLUIDS IN 70 kg MAN

TOTAL VOLUME
42 L

INTRA CELLUAR FLUID

28 L(ROUGHLY 2/3 OF TBW)

EXTRA CELLULAR FLUID

14 L(ROUGHLY 1/3 OF TBW)

PLASMA
3 L (ROUGHLY ¼ OF ECF)
Neelam Valley
Ushu
Swat
autonomic nervous
system

DR/ MOHAMED HASSAN

doctorpioneer@yahoo.com
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM

 The autonomic nervous system is a part of the

nervous system concerned with regulation and
control of all involuntary processes in the body.
 Anatomically:
The nervous system can be divided into:

 Central
 - Brain Spinal cord
 peripheral
 -Cranial nerves (12)

 -Spinal nerves (31)

 Physiologically:
 The nervous system is divided into 2
main systems: (somatic and autonomic
nervous system):
 1-Somatic nervous system:
 - Called voluntary nervous system.
 - Controls the activity of the voluntary
skeletal muscles.
 2-Autonomic nervous system:
 - Called involuntary nervous system
 - Concerned with the unconcious control of
visceral activity such as regulation of the
heart and digestive functions.
 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic
nervous systems

 Autonomic  Somatic
 -It supply smooth  It supplies only skeletal
muscles, cardiac muscles.
muscles and all
exocrine glands  -It is voluntary.
 -It is involuntary.
 -It is 2 efferent neurons  -It is one efferent
system. neuron system.
 -It is a regulator system  -It is operator system
(responsible for (it performs all process,
regulation of all process so it is always
in the body, so it may excitatory).
be excitatory or
inhibitory.
 -Its neurotransmitters:  -Its neurotransmitter:
acetylcholine or acetylcholine only
norepinephrine
 In case of autonomic nervous
system:

 preganglionic and postganglionic

neurones (2 efferent neuron
systems).
 The preganglionic fibers synapse with
postganglionic fibers in a ganglion
located outside the CNS.
 In somatic, it is one efferent neuron
system.
 Axon of 1st (preganglionic) neuron leaves
CNS to synapse with the 2nd
(postganglionic) neuron
 Axon of 2nd (postganglionic) neuron
extends to the organ it serves
Diagram contrasts somatic (lower) and autonomic:

autonomic
this dorsal
root ganglion
is sensory

somatic

Note: the autonomic ganglion is motor

 Autonomic ganglia
 It is a collection of nerve cells outside
the CNS and contains the nerve cells of the
postganglionic neurons.
 Act as: -Relay stations. -Distributing
centres.
 Types:
 Lateral: form the sympathetic chain on
both sides of vertebral column
(Paravertebral ganglia are onlysympathetic.
 Collateral: are sympathetic ganglia.
 Terminal: are parasympathetic ganglia
located on or near effector organ
The adrenal medulla

 Modified
sympathetic
ganglion
 Secretes
epinephrine
mainly
(80%) and
norepinephri
ne (20%)
 Divisions of the autonomic
nervous system:
 The autonomic nervous system is
divided into 2 systems according to
the origin of preganglionic neuron.
 1-The sympathetic nervous system:
 Which arise from thoracolumbar
segments of the spinal cord- so it is called:
“Thoracolumbar outflow”.
 Most sympathetic preganglionic fibers are
very short, relay in sympathetic chain
located on either side of the spinal cord
and the long postganglionic fibers
originating from this ganglion chain
terminate in effector organ.
 Some preganglionic fibres terminate in
collateral ganglia located between the
spinal cord and innervated organ.
 2-The parasympathetic system:
 Which arise from the cranial and sacral
areas of the CNS, so it is called cranio-
sacral outflow (from cranial nerves III, VII,
IX, X) and from S2-S4 sacral segments.
 The cranial outflow supplies the visceral
structures in the head via the occulmotor,
facial, glossopharyngeal nerves and those
in the thorax and upper abdomen via the
vagus nerves.
 The sacral outflow supplies the pelvic
viscera.
 The preganglionic fibers in both outflows
end on short postganglionic neurons
located on or near the visceral structures.
Divisions of the autonomic nervous system

 Parasympathetic division
 Sympathetic division

Serve most of the same organs but

cause opposing or antagonistic
effects
Parasysmpathetic: routine maintenance
“rest &digest”
Sympathetic: mobilization & increased metabolism
“fight, flight or fright” or “fight, flight or freeze”
 Chemical Transmission at
Autonomic Junctions
 Transmission at the synaptic
junction between pre and
postganglionic neurons and between
the postganglionic neurons and
effector organs is chemically
mediated i.e. by neurotransmitters.
The principal transmitter agents
involved are: acetylcholine,
norepinephrine.
 Chemical Divisions of the ANS:
 On the basis of the chemical mediator
released, the ANS can be divided
into:
 Cholinergic system (release
acetylcholine).
 Noradrenergic system (release
noradrenaline).
 Sympathetic and parasympathetic
preganglionic fibers release the same
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. But,
they differ in the neurotransmitter
released at their postganglionic
endings.
 Parasympathetic postganglionic
----> acetylcholine.
 Most sympathetic postganglionic ---->
nor-epinephrine
Motor pathways of the ANS
 So, all autonomic preganglionic fibers
and postganglionic parasympathetic
fibers are called “cholinergic fibers”.
 In contrast to most postganglionic
sympathetic fibers which are called
“adrenergic fibers”.
 Sympathetic Parasympathetic
division division
Origin of Spinal cord Nuclei of CN III, VII, IX
preganglionic segments T1- L2 and X ; spinal cord
neurons (Thoracolumbar segments S2- S4
(Craniosacral)
Location of Paravertebral Terminal (in or near
autonomic ganglia (lateral;collateral) effector organs)

Length of Short Long

preganglionic
axons
Length of long Short
postganglionic
axons
Neurotransmitter &
receptor type in
ACh ACh
ganglion
Neurotransmitter
in effector organs
Norepinephrine (except
sweat gland & blood ACh
vessels of skeletal m)
 Receptors in the ANS
 Cholinergic receptors:
Inhibitory or excitatory
- Nicotinic (at ganglia)
- Muscarinic (at organs)

Adrenergic receptors:

- α 1 and 2
- β 1 and 2
 Adrenergic Receptors
 ►Found on organs stimulated by
sympathetic fibers (using NE).
 ►Two types :
 􀂃 Alpha : excitatory
 􀂃 Beta : inhibitory, except in cardiac
muscle where it is excitatory
 Functions of ANS

 1-Sympathetic Stimulation
 􀂄stimulate sweat glands
 􀂄constrict peripheral vessels
 􀂄increase blood to skeletal muscles
 􀂄increase chronotropic and and inotropic effects
 􀂄bronchodilation
 􀂄reduce blood flow to abdomen
 􀂄decrease digestive activity
 􀂄relax smooth muscle in wall of bladder
 􀂄release glucose from stores
 2- Parasympathetic Nervous
System 􀂄pupillary constriction
􀂄secretion by digestive glands
􀂄increased smooth muscle activity
along GI tract activity
􀂄bronchoconstrction
􀂄reduced HR & negative Inotropic
effect
 Autonomic Nervous system
-1 to promote survival - the other to promote
in crisis state survival in stable state

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Fight or flight Rest and
digest
 Atropine
 􀂃 Anticholinergic agent and
muscarinic antagonist
 􀂃 Blocks parasympathetic effects
 􀂃 Used to suppress salivation and
respiratory
 secretions; also used to dilate the
pupil
Summary