Introduction to Magnetic Exploration

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 Often cheap relative to other geophysical techniques.
 Can be measured with ground-based or airborne equipment.
 Not usually very useful when looking at sedimentary structures.
(We’ll see why later!)
 Measuring a potential field (like gravity!)
 Interpretation is more difficult than for gravity data because
magnetization is a vector
 Changes in the field, not the absolute value of the field is important.

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 Earth Magnetic field

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Resembles that of a bar magnet near the the center with
its axis inclined at aboat 11,5 degres W of GeoPole

Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic

field, is the magnetic field that extends from the Earth's
interior out into space, where it meets the solar wind, a
stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun.

Its magnitude at the Earth's surface ranges from 25 to 65
microteslas (0.25 to 0.65 gauss).
The North geomagnetic pole, located near Greenland in
the northern hemisphere, is actually the south pole of the

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Earth's magnetic field, and the
South geomagnetic pole is the north pole. Unlike a bar
magnet, however,Earth's magnetic field changes over
time because it is generated by a geodynamo
Main Earth mag Field

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Circulation of molten material in Earth’s core causes Earth’s
magnetism

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 The dipole model of the Earth's

The dipole model of the Earth's magnetic

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field is a
first order approximation of the rather
complex trueEarth's magnetic field. Due to
effects of the
interplanetary magnetic field, and the solar
wind,
the dipole model is particularly inaccurate
athigh L-shells (e.g., aboveL=3), but may be
a good approximation for lower Lshells.
For more precise work, or for any work at

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higher L-shells, a more accurate model that
incorporates solar effects,
 MAGNETOSPHERE

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Solar wind = charged particles ejected
from the Sun
Magnetosphere = a zone of charged particles trapped by Earth’s magnetic
field

Magnetotail = portion of a magnetosphere

that is pushed away from the sun by the
solar wind

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 At any location, the Earth's magnetic field can be represented by a three-dimensional
vector..
Its angle relative to true North is the declination (D) or variation. Facing magnetic North,
the angle the field makes with the horizontal is the inclination (I) or magnetic dip.

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The intensity (F) of the field is proportional to the force it exerts on a magnet. Another
common representation is in X (North), Y (East) and Z (Down) coordinates
magneticdeclination

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• angle between geographic north and the north to which a
compass needle points

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 intensity

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 The intensity of the field is often measured in gauss (G),
but is generally reported in nanoteslas (nT), with 1 G =
100,000 nT.
A nanotesla is also referred to as a gamma (γ).
The tesla is the SI unit of the Magnetic field, B. The field
ranges between approximately 25,000 and 65,000 nT (0.25–
0.65 G).
By comparison, a strong refrigerator magnet has a field of

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about 100 gauss (0.010 T).
 Magnetic Monopoles
The mathematical expression for the magnetic force experienced between two magnetic monopoles

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where μ is a constant of proportionality known as the magnetic permeability,
p1 and p2 are the strengths of the two magnetic monopoles,
r is the distance between the two poles.

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  Unlike the gravitational constant, G, the magnetic permeability, μ, is
a property of the material in which the two monopoles, p1 and p2, are
located.

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 • Unlike m1 and m2, p1 and p2 can be either positive or negative in
sign. If p1 and p2 have the same sign, the force between the two
monopol.
 es is repulsive.
 If p1 and p2 have opposite signs, the force between the two
monopoles is attractive

magnetic monopoles that we have been describing have never actually been

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observed (Magnetic Dipole exist)
 Units Associated with Magnetic
Poles

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Permeability, μ, unitless constant.
The units of pole strength are defined such that if the force, F, is 1 N and the two
magnetic poles are separated by 1 m, each of the poles has a strength of 1 Amp .
m (Ampere - meters). (NOTE - the poles are referred to as unit poles.)
The magnetic field strength, H, is the force per unit pole strength exerted by a

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magnetic monopole, p1. compare H to Coulomb's expression
 Summary Earth’s field

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 Core field – main dynamo, 99 %
 Magnetic field due to the crustal layer- about 1 % ( Crustal Rocks have
various magnetic properties ( of interest to Geophysic exploration)
 External – interaction of solar wind and earth’s magnetosphere

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Magnatisation in Rocks

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 Induced  Remanent

This is the magnetization Permanent acquired by the rock when

acquired in the presence of it cools down in the presence of
magnetic field, chemical formation or
the field and it disappears
crystallization in the field.
when the field is removed
It is in the same direction as
the present day earths field

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Note: rocks above Curie isotherm (550^) can have above magnetization
About depth 2900km no magnetic properties
Induced magnetization, Ji .
When a material is exposed to a magnetic field H, it acquires an induced
magnetization. These are related through the magnetic susceptibility, χ. Ji = χH

Remanent magnetization, Jr. This remanent magnetization is a recording of past

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magnetic field that have acted on the material.

magnetic susceptibility - is a dimensionless proportionality constant that indicates

the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an applied magnetic field.

Factors affecting the magnetic susceptibility:

The spin of the electron

Number of electrons in the outer
shell - pair or odd?

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Factors affecting the magnetic
susceptibility

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The spin of the electron

Number of electrons in the outer-shell - pair or odd?

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Three types of magnetic materials:

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 Paramagnetic
 Diamagnetic
 Ferromagnetic

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Ferromagnetism
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
• Measures the response of electrons to a magnetic
field.

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• Electrons produce magnetic moments:
magnetic moments
electron electron

nucleus spin
Adapted from Fig. 20.4,
Callister 6e.

• Net magnetic moment:

--sum of moments from all electrons.

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• Three types of response...

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3 TYPES OF MAGNETISM
B  (1  ) o H permeability of a vacuum:

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Magnetic induction (1.26 x 10-6 Henries/m)
(B--tesla)

(3) ferromagnetic e.g., Fe 3 O 4 , NiFe 2 O 4

ferrimagnetic e.g., ferrite( ), Co, Ni, Gd
( as large as 10 6 !)
(2)
e.g., Al, Cr, Mo, Na, Ti, Zr
vacuum ( = 0)
(1) diamagnetic ( ~ -10 -5 )

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e.g., Al2 O 3 , Cu, Au, Si, Ag, Zn

Strength of applied magnetic field (H)

(ampere-turns/m) Plot adapted from Fig. 20.6, Callister 6e. Values and
materials from Table 20.2 and discussion in Section 20.4,
Callister 6e. 5
FERRO- & FERRI-MAGNETIC MATERIALS
• As the applied field (H) increases...
--the magnetic moment aligns with H.

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B sat
Adapted from Fig. 20.13,
H Callister 6e. (Fig. 20.13
adapted from O.H. Wyatt

induction (B) H and D. Dew-Hughes,

Metals, Ceramics, and
Polymers, Cambridge
H • “Domains” with University Press, 1974.)
Magnetic

aligned magnetic
H moment grow at
expense of poorly
aligned ones!
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0 Applied Magnetic Field (H)

H=0
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(c) Ferromagnetic substance.
The path of the magnetization as a
function of the applied field is

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non-linear and is called hysteresis
loop.
Magnetization that can be orders of
magnitude larger than for the
paramagnetic solids.
Upon removal of the magnetizing
field, magnetization does not return

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to zero but retains a record of the
applied field.
Natural Remanent Magnetization, J(NRM).
In situ magnetization of rocks is the vector sum of two

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components:
J = Ji + Jr