Bathymetry of the Seafloor

“Mapping the Seafloor” How

and Why

Prepared By:
Krismae Moreno
 Bathymetry
• is the study of the "beds" or "floors" of
water bodies, including the ocean, rivers,
streams, and lakes
• originally referred to the ocean's depth
relative to sea level, although it has
come to mean “submarine topography,”
or the depths and shapes of underwater
terrain
What lies underneath the sea?
• Continental Shelf
– A continental shelf typically extends from the 
coast to depths of 100–200 metres (330–660
feet). It is gently inclined seaward at an
average slope of about 0.1°.

• Continental Slope
- seaward border of the continental shelf. The
world’s combined continental slope has a total
length of approximately 300,000 km (200,000
miles) and descends at an average angle in excess
of 4° from edge of the continental shelf
• Volcanic Island Arc
– composed of a chain of volcanoes, with arc-
shaped alignment, situated parallel and close
to a boundary between two converging 
tectonic plates.

• Abyss
- portion of the ocean deeper than about 2,000
m (6,600 feet) and shallower than about 6,000
m (20,000 feet).
• Continental Rise
– major depositional regime in oceans made up
of thick sequences of continental material that
accumulate between the continental slope and
the abyssal plain.

• Abyssal Plain
- an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor,
usually found at depths between 3,000 metres
(9,800 ft) and 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). Lying
generally between the foot of a continental rise
and a mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plains cover
more than 50% of the Earth's surface.
• Mid-Ocean Ridge
– a long, seismically active submarine ridge
system situated in the middle of an ocean
basin and marking the site of the upwelling of
magma associated with seafloor spreading.

• Guyot
- a seamount with a flat top.
• Seamount
- A mountain rising from the ocean seafloor
that does not reach to the water's surface (sea
level), and thus is not an island. Seamounts are
typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise
abruptly and are usually found rising from the
seafloor to 1,000– 4,000 metres (3,300–13,100 ft)
in height.

• Oceanic Trench
- long but narrow topographic depressions
of the sea floor. They also are the deepest
parts of the ocean floor.
 Bathymetric Techniques
• Originally, bathymetry involved the measurement of 
ocean depth through depth sounding. Early
techniques used pre-measured heavy rope or cable
lowered over a ship's side.
• This technique measures the depth only a singular
point at a time, and is therefore inefficient. It is also
subject to movements of the ship and currents
moving the line out of true and therefore is
inaccurate.
• The first primitive maps were rendered from
successions of single soundings produced by
lowering weighted lines into the water and noting
when the tension on the line slackened, indicating
the ocean floor.
• The depth was then measured by the amount of line
paid out. These early maps gave only the most
general picture of the ocean floor and only the larger
features could be identified by looking for patterns in
many such soundings. Most of these surveys were
conducted to identify near shore hazards to
shipping.
• Only in the late nineteenth century did expeditions
begin to take large numbers of soundings in deep
water.
First printed map of oceanic bathymetry, produced with
data from USS Dolphin. The very earliest rendition of a
bathymetric map of an oceanic basin. Matthew Fontaine
Maury published this map in 1853 in Explanations and
Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current
Charts.
• The first modern breakthrough in seafloor mapping
came with the use of underwater sound projectors
called “sonar”, which was first used during World
War I.

• By the 1920s, the Coast and Geodetic Survey (the

precursor to NOAA's Ocean Service) was using
sonar to map deep water areas.

• During World War II, advances in sonar and

electronics led to much improved systems that
provided precisely timed measurements of the
seafloor at great water depths.
•  The depth of water under the ship could be
determined by measuring the two-way travel time
(from the ship, to the bottom, and back) of a pulse of
acoustic energy (sound) sent by a transducer
directly below the ship. This is the basis of the
single-beam echosounders that uses one transducer
to transmit ang receive sound energy.

• The sea floor is repeatedly 'pinged' with this narrow

(less than about 5 degrees) cone of acoustic energy
as the ship moves along the track. So, researchers
obtain a recording of the two-way travel time of
sound energy directly below the ship, along the
ship’s path. 
•  In the 1960s, the U.S. Navy began using a new
technology of “multibeam sonar.” 

• Arrays of sonar projectors produced soundings not

only along the track, but also for significant distances
perpendicular to the ship's track. Instead of lines of
soundings, these new “multibeam” systems
produced a “swath” of soundings.
How do we map the Seafloor?
• Multibeam or ‘swath’ system
- Multibeam echo sounders emit a fan of sound
beams to the seafloor to scan a wide swath of the
seabed in great detail. Compared with conventional
echo sounders which direct a single beam of sound
to the seabed directly below a ship – multibeams
show more detail and greatly reduce ship survey
time and cost. 
 How it works?
• The hull-mounted multibeam transceiver sends out a
beam of sound waves which are reflected off the
seafloor, back to a receiver on the ship.

• In Tangaroa’s Kongsberg EM302 multibeam system,

the signal is divided into 288 separate beams, which
form a swath on the seafloor. The swath width
increases with water depth to a maximum of seven
kilometres at a depth of about 2500 metres. It can
map the seafloor at depths of up to 8000 metres.
Tangaroa’s Kongsberg EM302 multibeam
system
 Building a 3-D picture of the
Seafloor
• The multibeam system calculates water depth from
the time it takes the sound to travel to the seafloor
and back to the ship.

• Seafloor substrate hardness and texture are

indicated by the strength of the return echoes
(‘backscatter’). For instance, weak echoes often
indicate soft mud; strong echoes indicate rocks.
 Sophisticated software combines these data with
precise location data from satellite-based Differential
Global Positioning Systems (DGPS) to produce various
pictures of the seafloor, including:

• charts of water depth (‘bathymetry’) as contours or

colour-coded charts
• digital elevation models – a colour-shaded relief
model of the seafloor, like an aerial photograph
• geo-referenced maps of seafloor habitats and
substrates.
 Purposes for Bathymetry
• Determine the bottom depth and contour these
depths for bottom analysis
• Determine topographic features by looking from
the top down and bottom geomorphology
• Detail physical factors including water current,
sediment transport, slope and areas for layering,
etc.
• Use values for comparisons of changing bottom
features and movement of sediments