Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Part 1
Fluoroscopy
X-ray
unit
mirror
Fluoroscopy
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Fast
No permanent
inspectionrecord
technique
• Hazardous
No film processing
to operator
required
• Limited
Can permit
to thickness
viewing in
(Good
all direction
for thin
material)
Duties of a radiographic interpreter
Mask of any unwanted light from viewer
Ensure the background light is subdued
Check the radiograph for correct identification
Assess the radiographs density
Calculate the radiographs sensitivity
Check the radiograph for any artifacts
Assess the radiograph for any defects present
State the action to be taken, acceptable,
rejectable or repair
Principles of Radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test
object
Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
through which it is travelling
Thinner areas and materials of a less density
show as darker areas on the radiograph
Thicker areas and materials of a greater
density show as lighter areas on a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and
composites
Industrial Radiography
Source
10fe16
High dense
Low dense
discontinuity
discontinuity
Lighter Film
region on
radiograph
Darker
region on
radiograph
The basis of radiography
Source
Thin part
Thick
part
Film
Lighter Darker
Region on region on
radiograph radiograph
Measuring Radiation
WAVELENGTH: New: Nanometers (nm) 1nm = 10-9
Old: Angstroms (Å) 1Å = 10-10 m
D1
I1 D2 2
=
I1 I2 D1 2
D2
I2
Example: 1 An x-ray tube emits 40 msv/h of radiation at an
auto-monitored distance of 1m. What is the
distance where safety barriers are to be erected
at 7.5 msv/h?
D2 = I 1 X D12 D2 = 40 X 12
I2 7 .5
Answer D2 = 2.31m
Question 2 I1 = 6.4 µsv/h D1 = 45m
I2 = ? D2 = 1m
I2 = D12 X I1
2
I2 = 45 2
X 6.4
D2 12
Answer I2 = 12960µsv/h
Question 3 I1 = ? D1 = 1m
I2 = 0.02 mr/h D2 = 35m
I 1 = D2 2 X I2 I1 = 352 X 0.02
2 2
D1 1
Answer I1 = 24.5 mr/h
Question 4 I1 = 333 msv/h D1 = 15m
I2 = 75 msv/h D2 = ?
• Internal flaws
• Can be used on most materials
• Direct image of flaws
• Real - time imaging
Disadvantages of Radiography
• Health hazard
• Sensitive to defect orientation
• Access to both sides required
• Limited by material thickness
• Skilled interpretation required
• Relatively slow
• High capital outlay and running costs
What is radiation?
• Waves of energy associated with
electrical and magnetic fields
• Electrical and magnetic fields at right
angles to each other and to the direction
of propagation
Electromagnetic Radiation
Properties of x-ray and gamma rays
Shortening Wavelength
Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
V
f
V 2.997 x10 m / sec
8
E = hf
Planks constant = 6.626196 x 10-34J.s.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Industrial
radiography
Electric
Microwaves Waves
Ultra
Infra red TV
violet
10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1cm 102 104 106 108
Wavelength
Ionization
8 +ve protons
7 -ve electrons
1 +ve charge
8+
Displaced electron
8 +ve protons
7 -ve electrons
1 +ve charge 8+
8+ 8 +ve protons
9 -ve electrons
1 -ve charge
Negative oxygen ion
Positive oxygen ion
Atomic structure
N SHELL
M SHELL
L SHELL
K SHELL
Proton + ve charge
Neutron no charge
NEUTRONS: No Charge
X-ray production
X-Ray Production
Cathode - ve Anode + ve
Electron Stream
Milliamps
X-ray beam
Intensity
Homogeneous
(Quantity)
wavelength
Kilovolts wavelength (Quality)
Atomic structure of Tungsten ( Anode)
Higher velocity
Higher velocity
Polychromatic ray
Characteristic X-ray
Continuous X-ray
(Monochromatic ray)
(Industrial radiography)
X-RAY PRODUCTION
• CATHODE • ANODE
Increase Decrease
Decrease penetration
Increase penetration
X-Ray Production
Amperage
Increase Decrease
Disadvantages Disadvantages
• Bulky equipment • Low output/unit time
• Expensive • Longer exposure times
• Low duty cycle 50%
Determination of focal spot size
X- RAY TUBE
Inserted Removed
Nuclear Reactor
RADIOACTIVE AREAS
THE GREATER THE
AMOUNT THE GREATER
THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
NEUTRONS
THERMAL & FAST
BETA PARTICLES
EJECTED AS ELECTRONS
-Ve CHARGE GAMMA RAYS
EMMITTED AFTER BETA
OR ALPHA PARTICLES.
Photons of energy they are
not particles.
Rate of Decay
• Curie 3.7 x 1010 disintegration / second
• Becquerel 1 disintegration / second
• 1 Curie = 37 Gbq
• Half Life Time taken for the activity of
an isotope to reduce by a half
• Cobalt 60 5.3 years
• Iridium 192 74 days
• Ytterbium 169 32 days
• Selenium 75 120 days
Wavelengths
Intensity Mev.
Co 60
1.17 to1.3 Mev
Relative
Ir 192
0.3 to 0.47 Mev
Yb 169
0.06 to 0.2 Mev
Gamma line spectrum (discrete energies), the wave length is not of a fixed
nature. A number of frequencies will be emitted for most sources.
θ
Soft radiation
Ejected electron
Low Energy X-ray (total energy beam
absorbed by this
electron)
Absorption
process
1. Compton Effect
Energy level-(0.3 - 3.0 Mev) Ejected electron
photon
X-ray
Scattered radiation
Scattered
radiation
Ejected positron
ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
Rayleigh scattering Photoelectric effect
Occurs at very low energies Occurs at low energies
In this process, photons are The complete absorption of a
photon of energy by an atom with
deflected by outer electrons
the emission of an electron
with no change in energy
Pair production
Compton effect
Occurs at very high energies
Occurs at higher energies The simultaneous formation of an
The interaction of a photon of positron (+ve electron) and a
energy by an electron resulting electron as a result of the
in the ejection of an electron interaction of a photon with the
from its atom with a certain nucleus of the atom. The particles
amount of energy. The are soon afterwards destroyed
thus creating photons this is
remaining energy is scattered
known as
this is known as COMPTON
Annihilation
SCATTER
Gamma ray VS X-ray
Advantages Disadvantages
• No electrical or water supplies • Poorer quality radiographs
needed
• Exposure times can be longer
• Equipment smaller and lighter
(More portable) • Sources need replacing