Information Input and

Processing
• Information theory
• What is information
• How it can be measured
• How it can be displayed
• How it can be coded
• Compatibility
• Information processing
• Perception
• Memory
• Decision making
• Attention
• Age and information processing
• Mental workload
Human-Machine System
 Human-Machine System

Information Storage

Action Function
Sensing Information
Info (physical control Info
(information processing and
input or output
receiving) decision
communication)

3
 Information theory
• The area of HF that is concerned with information perception
or attention is called cognitive psychology, cognitive
engineering, or engineering psychology
 Perception
• Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and
interpreting information

• This process affects our communication because we

respond to stimuli differently, whether they are
objects or persons, based on how we perceive them
 Perception
1. Selection:
• Given the massive amounts of stimuli taken in by our senses,
we only select a portion of the incoming information to
organize and interpret
• We tend to find salient things that are visually or aurally
stimulating and things that meet our needs, interests and
expectations
 Perception
2. Organization:
• we organize (sort and categorize) information that
we select into patterns based on proximity, similarity,
and difference
 Perception
3. Interpretation:
• We interpret information using schemata (database),
which allow us to assign meaning to information
based on accumulated knowledge and previous
experience
 Information theory
• Information is defined as the reduction of
uncertainty

• Uncertainty is our limited knowledge about the

outcome of some (future) event

• The occurrence of highly certain events do not

convey much information (such as fasten seat belt
sign), because it is expected. But the occurrence of
highly unlikely events convey more information
(such as high temperature warning in a car)
 Information theory
• Information conveyed by a less likely event is more than
information conveyed by a more likely event.

• The fasten seat belt sign conveys less information because it is

expected.

• Although it is an important message, the importance is not

directly considered in the information definition.

• Because this message comes on every time the car is started,

it contains little (or no) information in the context of
information theory.
 Information theory
• Uncertainty rises when we do not know the outcome
of an information source.

• This means uncertainty is a measurement of how

much information we do not have.

• However, this also means uncertainty is the average

amount of information we will have when we receive
an outcome from an information source.
 Information theory
Measuring Information:
• Consider an information source X (e.g. radar system).

• The uncertainty (amount of information we don’t have or

amount of information conveyed by the radar system) is
called H (X).

• The amount of information H (X) is measured in bits. A bit is

the amount of information required to decide between two
equally likely alternatives.
 Information theory
• Assume that the information source can give us N
symbols (or alternatives) each with probability of pi,
where i = 1, …, N.

• The amount of information conveyed by a symbol i is:

1
hi =log 2
pi
 Information theory
• If the probabilities of N symbols (alternatives) are
equal, then the average amount of information
conveyed in bits is calculated according to the
following formula:
H  log 2 N

• The average amount of information conveyed by a

series of symbols having different probabilities is:
N  1 
Hav   pi  log 2 

pi 
i 1 
 Information theory
Example:
• Consider a signal from a radar indicating how enemies are attacking. How
much information could the signal convey:

a. If it can equally indicate whether the enemies are coming from air or
land?
Ans. log2 2 = 1 bit (information gain or uncertainty)

b. If it can equally indicate any attack from land, air, sea or underwater?
Ans. log2 4 = 2 bits (best system because it convey more information)

c. If it can indicate any attack from air or land with probabilities of 0.9 and
0.1, respectively?
Ans. [.9Log2 (1/.9)+.1log2 (1/.1)] = .47 bit (worst system because it can not
successfully detect both events equally)
 Information theory
• The maximum possible information occurs when all the
alternatives have equal probability
• The reduction in information from the maximum due to
unequal probabilities of events is called REDUNDANCY
• Percentage of redundancy is calculated according to the
following formula:
 Hav 
% Redundancy  1    100
 H max 

• Example, based on (c) previous example:

% Redundancy = [1-(.47/1)] x 100 = 53%
 Information theory
What is the importance of information theory?
• Information theory provides a way to quantify information

• This will help in analysing the amount of information

transmitted through a system

• This will help us to find better ways to present the information

to humans in order to achieve the intended goal
 Displaying information
• Human information input and processing depends on the
sensory reception of relevant external stimuli which contain
the information we process

• The original source of information (the distal stimulus) is

some object, event, or environmental condition

• Information from the distal stimulus may come to us directly

or indirectly
 Displaying information
Direct sensing Indirect sensing
 Displaying information
• In the case of indirect sensing, the new distal stimuli may be of two
types: coded stimuli (e.g. radar screens that display aircraft as blips) or
reproduced stimuli (e.g. TV, radio, microscopes)

• In both cases, the coded or reproduced stimuli become the actual distal
stimuli to the human sensory receptors

• Human factors are needed when indirect sensing applies (i.e. to help
designers and engineers to design displays for presenting information to
people)

• Display is a term that applies to any indirect method of presenting

information
 Displaying information

• Information presented by displays can

be dynamic or static

• Dynamic information changes

continuously or is subject to change
through time. Examples are: traffic lights,
radar displays, temperature gauges, rpm

• Static information remain fixed over time

(or at least for a time). Examples are:
alphanumeric data, traffic signs, charts
 Displaying information
A detailed classification is presented below:
• Quantitative: display presentations that reflect quantitative
value of a variable (such as temperature or speed)
• Qualitative: reflect approximate value, trend or rate of change
• Status: reflects the condition of a system (such as on or off)
• Warning and signal: indicating danger, emergency or presence
of some object (such as aircraft beacons)
• Representational: pictorial or graphical representation of
objects, areas, or other configurations (Such heartbeat shown
on an oscilloscope)
 Displaying information
• Identification: used to identify a condition, situation or object
(such as identification of hazards or color-coded pipes)

• Alphanumeric and symbolic: such as signs, labels, printed

material, music notes and computer printouts

• Time-phased: display of pulsed or time-phased signals. The

duration and inter-signal intervals are controlled (e.g. Morse
code)
 Example of display
Quantitative display Qualitative display
 Displaying information
Selection of display modality

•Visual or auditory displays? Tactual sense?

•The selection of the sensory modality depends on a number of

considerations

•Next table gives reasons for making a decision to use visual or

auditory presentation of information
Displaying information
 Coding of information
• Coding takes place when the original stimulus information is
converted to a new form and displayed symbolically
• Examples: radar screens where the aircrafts are converted
and presented as dots, maps displaying cities with different
kinds and populations with different symbols and sizes
• Information is coded along many dimensions, for example:
 Targets on a computer screen can be coded by varying the
size, brightness, colour and shape
 An audio warning signal can be coded by varying the
frequency, intensity, or on-off pattern
• Each of the above variations constitutes a dimension of the
displayed stimulus, or a stimulus dimension
 Coding of information
The convenience of any stimulus dimension to convey
information depends on the ability of people to:

1.Identify a stimulus based on its position along the stimulus

dimension (such as identifying a target as bright or dim, large
or small). This is an example of absolute judgment

OR

2.Distinguish between two or more stimuli which differ along

the stimulus dimension (such as comparing two or more
sounds and indicating which one is louder), we call this relative
judgment
 Coding of information
Characteristics of a good coding system

1. Detectability of codes: the used stimulus must be

detectable by human sensory mechanisms under the
present environmental conditions

2. Discriminability of codes: every code symbol must be

discriminable from other symbols
 Coding of information
3. Meaningfulness of codes: A coding system should use
codes meaningful to the user. Meaning could be inherent in
the code or learned. The meaningfulness is related to the
concept of conceptual compatibility which will be discussed
later.

4. Standardisation of codes: When a coding system is to be

used by different people in different situations, it is
important that the codes be standardised and kept the
same

5. Use of multidimensional codes: this can increase the

number and discriminability of coding stimuli used
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
 Compatibility
• Compatibility refers to the relationship of stimuli and
responses to human expectations
• A major goal in any design is to make the system compatible
with human expectations
• The concept of compatibility implies a process of information
transformation (or recoding)
• The greater the degree of compatibility, the less recoding
must be done to process information
• This result in: faster learning, faster response time, fewer
errors, and reduced mental work
 Types of compatibility
1. Conceptual compatibility: deals
with the degree to which
codes/symbols correspond to
conceptual associations people
have

2. Movement compatibility: relates

to the relationship between the
movement of displays/controls
and the response of the system
being controlled
 Types of compatibility
3. Spatial compatibility: refers to the physical arrangement in
space of controls and their associated displays
 Types of compatibility
4. Modality compatibility: refers to the certain stimulus-
response modality combinations are more compatible with
some tasks than with others
Example: responding to a verbal command that needs verbal
action is faster than responding to a written or displayed
command requiring the same verbal action
 Human information Processing
1. Previously, we have covered: how humans obtain
information from our environment and how this
information is preliminarily processed
2. Now, we will integrate this information with how the brain
further processes this information into our perception of
the world and enables our interaction with it
• Understanding (1) information input and (2) humans
information processing will help us to understand the
capabilities and limitations of human cognition, which will
result in the successful design of human-centered systems
 Human information Processing
• Several modeling attempts to
explain how human process
information, but they all
agree on a general framework
and main components

• Wickens’ model is one of such

models

• The main components of

Wickens’ model are:
 perception
 memory
 decision making
 attention
1. Sensory stimuli enter the short-term sensory store where they are
transformed into a form that the perceptual processes within the brain
can understand
2. Processed stimuli are transferred to working memory
3. Working memory draws upon and interacts with long-term memory to
develop our perception of the world and to determine our response to
these perceptions
 Perception
• We do not experience reality exactly as it exists, but as our
experience and memories cause us to perceive it
• Our sensory systems detect and take in stimuli from the
environment in the form of physical energy, which then is
converted into electrochemical energy that can be processed
by the brain
• The perception involves:
1) receipt of sensory information
2) select, organize, and interpret this information in order to
meaningfully recognize objects and events in our environment
• Our interpretation of sensory information requires retrieval
from long-term memory (our prior experience, knowledge,
emotional state, etc.)
 Memory
• Human memory system consists
of three subsystems: sensory
storage, working memory and
long-term memory

• Information in the sensory

memory subsystem must pass
through working memory in
order to enter long-term memory

• Human memory is vast, but

imperfect
 Memory
1. Sensory storage
• The two sensory storage mechanism we know most about are
those associated with visual system (iconic storage) and
auditory system (echoic storage)
• If a visual stimulus is flashed very briefly on a screen, iconic
storage holds the image for a short time (< 1 s), allowing further
processing of the image
• Information in sensory storage is not coded but is held in its
original sensory representation
• To retain information for a longer period, it must be encoded
and transferred to working memory
 Memory
2. Working memory
• Encoding and transferring information from sensory storage
to working memory, requires the person direct attention to
the process
• Information in working memory is coded with three types of
codes: visual, phonetic and semantic
• Each type can be generated by stimuli of the opposite type or
internally from long-term memory. Examples:
• The visually presented word DOG is phonetically coded as
the sound generated from reading the word
• If you hear the word DOG, you could generate a visual code
(mental picture) of a dog
 Memory
• Semantic codes are abstract representations of the meaning of a
stimulus rather than sight or sound generated by the stimulus
• They are especially important in long-term memory
• Research shows that all three codes can exist for a particular
stimulus at the same time in working memory
• Example: when people are presented a list of letters and asked to
recall them, errors of recall tend to reflect acoustic rather than
visual confusion
D
E
F
• Implication: in selecting letters to code information on a screen
 Memory
Capacity of working memory
• The only way information can be maintained in working memory
is by rehearsal
• Even with rehearsal, information in working memory can decay
over time (with more items in working memory)
• This is because the rehearsal is delayed as the number of items is
increased
• So, what is the maximum number of items that can be held in
working memory? Ans. 7 ± 2 (or 5 to 9)
• Miller (1956) recognized that people can “chunk” information into
familiar units, regardless of size, and these can be recalled as an
entity (the limit is approx. 7 ± 2 chunks)
 Memory
• For example, consider the letters C.A.T.D.O.G.R.A.T.
• Instead of considering this string as composed of 9 items, we
should consider that it contains 3 chunks (CAT.DOG.RAT)
• Digits can be recalled better if they are grouped into chunks of
3 to 5 items (458 321 691 is easier to recall than 458321691)
• Also, the more meaningful the chunks, the easier they are to
recall (e.g. “IBMJFKTV” can be chunked as “IB MJF KTV” or
“IBM JFK TV”)
• Practical implications:
1. Avoid presenting more than 5 to 9 chunks of information
2. Present information in meaningful and distinct chunks
3. Provide training on how to recall information by chunking
 Memory
3. Long-term memory
• Information in working memory is transferred to long-term
memory by semantically coding it (supplying meaning to
information and relating it to old information)
• Example, if you study for examinations by only repeatedly
reading the textbook, you probably have difficulty recalling
the information. Why?
• One reason is that you have not taken the time to
semantically encode the information
• To recall more information, it must be analyzed, compared,
and related to past knowledge
 Memory
• The more organized the information is initially, the easier it is
to transfer to long-term memory, and hence the easier it is to
retrieve it
• Retrieval is often the weak link in utilizing information stored
in long-term memory
• How can we organize information? By Mnemonics
• Mnemonics that can be used to learn a list of items include:
 Using the first letters of the items on the list to make a
word or sentence (nuggets, butter and cheese)
 Forming bizarre images connecting the items on the list
 Decision making
• Decision making is the end goal of human information processing
• It is a complex process by which people evaluate alternatives and
select a course of action
• People are not optimal decision makers, due to inattention,
personal biases and errors in judgment
• Examples of inherent biases in the way people make decision:
1. People give an undue amount of weight to early information
2. Humans are generally conservative
3. People tend to seek information that confirms the chosen
action
4. People tend to consider only about 2 to 4 possible choices
 Attention
• Things to which we are not paying attention are often not
perceived (or recalled), which indicates that attention can
be directed to objects or activities in order to be recalled

• Four types of situations or tasks involving the direction of

attention:
1. Selective attention
2. Focused attention
3. Divided attention
4. Sustained attention
 Attention
1. Selective attention: requires the monitoring of several
channels (sources) of information to perform a single task
• Example: A pilot scanning the instruments looking for a
deviant reading
Guidelines for designing selective attention tasks:
• Use as few sources of information as possible
• Provide information to the person as to the relative importance of
the various sources of information
• Train the person to effectively scan information sources
• If multiple visual sources are to be scanned, put them close
together to reduce scanning requirements
• If multiple auditory sources are to be scanned, be sure they do not
mask one another
 Attention
2. Focused attention: requires maintaining of attention on one or a
few channels (sources) of information and excluding other
sources
• Example: Reading a book while someone is talking on the phone
Guidelines for designing focused attention tasks:
• Make channels as distinct as possible
• Separate the channels in physical space
• Reduce the number of competing channels
• Make the channel of interest more distinct (larger, brighter,
louder)
 Attention
3. Divided attention: requires performing two or more separate
tasks simultaneously and attention must be paid to both
• Example: Driving a car while carrying on a conversation with a
passenger
Guidelines for designing divided attention tasks:
• Where possible, the number of potential sources of information
should be minimized
• The person should be provided with information about the
relative priorities of the tasks so that an optimum strategy of
dividing attention can be formulated
• Efforts should be made to keep the difficulty level of the tasks as
low as possible
 Attention
4. Sustained attention: requires sustaining attention over
prolonged periods of time without rest in order to detect
infrequently occurring signals
• Example: Security guards viewing TV monitors for the
infrequent intruder
Guidelines for designing focused attention tasks:
• Provide appropriate work-rest schedules
• Increase the conspicuity of the signal (make it larger, more
intense)
• Reduce uncertainty as to when and where the signal will
occur
• Maintain noise, temperature, illumination and other
environmental factors at optimal levels
 Age and information processing
• By 2030, the population of age 65 and more will be tripled (20%
of US population > 65 years)
• The effect of age on information processing usually do not
become noticeable until after age of 65 or so
• Changes in information processing capabilities:
1. A slowing of performance (take longer to retrieve
information from long-term memory, to choose among
alternatives, and to execute responses)
2. Increased disruption of working memory due to shift of
attention
3. Difficulty in searching for material in long-term memory
4. Difficulty in dealing with incompatibility
5. Decrements in perceptual encoding of ambiguous stimuli
 Age and information processing
Guidelines for designing information processing tasks for elderly:

• Strengthen signals displayed to the elderly (make them larger,

louder, brighter, etc.)
• Design controls and displays to reduce irrelevant details
• Maintain a high level of compatibility
• Reduce time-sharing demands
• Provide time between the execution of a response and the signal
for the next response
• Allow more time and practice to learn the material
 Mental workload
• Answer the following:
1. Define mental workload.
2. Identify risk factors of excessive mental workload.
3. How can we measure mental workload (at lease 3
techniques)?
4. Describe the implication of measuring mental
workload with an example.
5. How mental workload can impact design with an
example?