Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Chapter Seven: Learning

OVERVIEW
 Basic Concepts and Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
 Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Basic Learning Concepts and Classical

Conditioning
 What is learning?
 Process of acquiring through experience new information or
behaviors
 How do we learn?
 Through association: Certain events occur together (Classical
conditioning); Stimuli that are not control are associated and
response is automatic (respondent behavior)
 Through consequences: Association between a response and
consequences is learned (Operant conditioning)
 Through acquisition of mental information that guides
behavior: Cognitive learning
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Classical Conditioning

 Watson
 Influenced by Pavlov
 Theoretical goal of science of psychology is prediction
and control of behavior
 Behaviorism
 Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2)
studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
 Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but
not with (2).
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Classical Conditioning

 Pavlov
 Studied digestive system; first Russian Nobel Prize
(1904)
 Demonstrated associative learning via salivary
conditioning
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Basic
 Classical conditioning: Type of learning in which one
learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
 Neutral stimulus (NS): In classical conditioning, a
stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
 Unconditioned response (UR): In classical
conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response
(such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US)
(such as food in the mouth)
 Unconditioned stimulus (US): in classical conditioning,
a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and
automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Classical Conditioning

 Acquisition
 Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins
triggering the conditioned response
 Extinction
 Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical
conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not
follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
 Spontaneous recovery
 Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned
response
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Idealized Curve of Acquisition, Extinction, and

Recovery
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Classical Conditioning

 Generalization
 Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for
stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit
similar responses
 Discrimination
 Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant
stimuli
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Applications of Classical Conditioning

 Pavlov’s principles are used to influence

human health and well-being
 Areas of consciousness, motivation, emotion, health,
psychological disorders, therapy
 Addicts counseled to avoid stimuli that may trigger
cravings
 Pairing particular taste with drug that influences
immune responses may eventually lead to response
from taste alone.
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Applications of Classical Conditioning

 Pavlov’s work provided a basis for Watson’s

ideas that human emotions and behaviors,
though biologically influenced, are mainly
conditioned responses.
 Watson applied classical conditioning principles
in his studies of “Little Albert” to demonstrate
how specific fears might be conditioned.
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Operant Conditioning
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Operant Conditioning

Behavior operates on
Organisms associate
the environment to
their own actions with
produce rewarding or
consequences.
punishing stimuli.

Actions followed by
reinforcement increase;
those followed by
punishments often
decrease.
 Images
Bank/GettyImages
ImageBank/Getty

Skinner and Skinner’s

Experiments
Everton/TheImage
MacduffEverton/The
Macduff

 Skinner
 Expanded on
Thorndike’s law of effect
 Developed behavioral
technology and
principles of behavior
control
A Skinner box
Inside the box, the rat presses a bar for  Designed and used the
a food reward. Outside, a measuring Skinner box for
device (not shown above) records the experiments and
animal’s accumulated responses.
recorded responses
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Operant Conditioning

 Everyday behaviors are continually

reinforced and shaped.
 Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens a
preceding response
 Shaping: Gradually guiding toward closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcers

Positive reinforcement
Increases behaviors by presenting positive
reinforcers
Positive reinforcer
Is any stimulus that, when presented after a
response, strengthens the response

Negative reinforcement
Increases behaviors by stopping or
reducing negative stimuli
Is any stimulus that, when removed
after a response, strengthens the
response.
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcers

 Primary: Is unlearned; innately reinforcing

stimuli
 Conditioned (secondary): Gains power through
association with primary reinforcer
 Immediate: Occurs immediately after a behavior
 Delayed: Involves time delay between desired
response of and delivery of reward
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed
Ratio Every so many: reinforcement
after every nth behavior, such
as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or
pay workers per product unit
produced
Interval Every so often: reinforcement
for behavior after a fixed time,
such as Tuesday discount
prices
Variable
After an unpredictable
number: reinforcement after
a random number of
behaviors, as when playing
slot machines or fly fishing
Unpredictably often:
reinforcement for behavior
after a random amount of
time, as when checking for a
Facebook response
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Operant Conditioning

 Punishment administers an undesirable consequence

or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to
decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s
disobedience).
 Positive punishment
 Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired
behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to
happen in the future
 Negative punishment
 Removing a desired stimulus after particular undesired
behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing behavior in future
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Four Major Drawbacks of Physical

Punishment

Punished behavior Physical

is suppressed, not punishment may
forgotten. This Punishment increase
temporary state teaches Punishment can aggression by
may (negatively) discrimination teach fear. modeling
reinforce parents’ among situations. aggression as a
punishing way to cope with
behavior. problems.
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning

 At school: Computer and adaptive learning

software used in teaching and learning
 In sports: Behavioral methods implemented in
shaping behavior in athletic performance
 At work: Rewards successfully used to increase
productivity
 At home: Basic rules of shaping used in
parenting
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Reinforcing Desired Behavior and Extinguishing Undesired

Ones

State a realistic Decide how, Monitor how

goal in when, and where often you engage
measurable you will work in your desired
terms. toward your goal. behavior.

Reduce the
Reinforce the
rewards
desired behavior.
gradually.
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Contrasting Classical and Operant

Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Basic idea Organism associates events. Organism associates behavior and
resulting events.
Response Involuntary, automatic. Voluntary, operates on
environment.
Acquisition Associating events; NS is paired with US Associating response with a
and becomes CS. consequence (reinforcer or
punisher).
Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly Responding decreases when
presented alone. reinforcement stops.
Spontaneous The reappearance, after a rest period, of The reappearance, after a rest
recovery an extinguished CR. period, of an extinguished
response.
Generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli similar Organism’s response to similar
to the CS. stimuli is also reinforced.
Discrimination The learned ability to distinguish between Organism learns that certain
a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a responses, but not others, will be
US. reinforced.
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Biopsychosocial Influences on Learning

Psychological influences:
• Previous experiences
• Predictability of associations
• Generalizations
• Discrimination
Biological influences: Social-cultural influences:
• Genetic predispositions • Culturally-learned preferences
• Unconditioned responses • Motivation, affected by presence
• Adaptive responses of others

Learning
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Biological Constraints on Conditioning

 Limits on operant conditioning

 Nature limits species’ capacity for operant
conditioning
 Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn
associations that are naturally adaptive
 Instinctive drift occurs as animals revert to biologically
predisposed patterns
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Learning by Observation

 Observational learning
 Higher animals learn without direct experience by
watching and imitating others
 Bandura
 Pioneer researcher of observational learning
 Modeling
 Bobo doll experiment
 Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

The Famous Bobo Doll Experiment

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

 Mirror neurons
 Include frontal lobe neurons that some scientists
believe fire when performing certain actions or when
observing another doing so
 Brain’s mirroring of another’s action
 May enable imitation and empathy
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Applications of Observational Learning

 Prosocial effects
 Behavior modeling enhances learning of
communication, sales, and customer service skills in
new employees
 Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar
behavior in others
 Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media
increased later helping behavior
 Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong
internalized conscience as preschoolers
Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Applications of Observational Learning

 Antisocial effects
 Abusive parents may have aggressive children
 Watching TV and videos may teach children
 Bullying is effective tool for controlling others
 Men should be tough; women should be gentle
 Violence-viewing effect