CEG461 – SOIL MECHANICS

WEEK 2-ii
Physical properties and classification of soils;
1C) Soil Classification
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION
OF SOILS

ACTIVITY - Week 2-ii

• Lecture ~ 69 slides
• Tutorial 1C
• Independent learning activities

SOIL MECHANICS (CEG461) ARM/FBI/FAI 2017

 LEARNING OUTCOMES

Week 2-ii : Coverage ~ Basis of soil classification system,

PSD and Hydrometer and Consistency limits.

Learning outcomes:
At the end of this lecture/week the students would
be able to:

i. Discuss the purpose and usage of soil classification

system
ii. Carry out analysis of laboratory test results to
determine grading characteristics and classify soil

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

1C) SOIL CLASSIFICATION

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

1C) SOIL CLASSIFICATION

OUTLINE of PRESENTATION ~ cont’d…

12. Methods of Classification
13. Determination of Consistency Limits

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Methods of Classification

12. Methods of Classification

 Broadly, the procedures undertaken to classify soil is
based on whether it is a coarse grained material or a
fine grained material.
 For coarse grain sieving test is normally used to
determine the distribution of particle sizes. For fine
grain soil, hydrometer test (sedimentation test) is
adopted.
 The particle sizes in soils has a wide range from 200
mm down to the colloidal size particle of 0.001 mm in
clays.
 The of this analysis is to measure the
distribution
aim of particle size in a soil sample.

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Coarse grain analysis

1.12.1 Classification of Coarse Soil

In the case of coarse soil, the test conducted is
known as sieve analysis which is detailed out in :
BS 1377: 1990: Part 2 Methods of Test for
Soil for Civil Engineering Purposes: Test 9.
A coarse soil sample which have been separated from the
fines through the process of wet sieving, is oven dried and
then placed on standard nest of sieves arranged in
descending order according to the mesh size.
The nest of sieves is then agitated and the weight of soil
retained on each sieve is determined and the cumulative
percentage of the sub sample passing each sieve is
calculated.
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Standard sieve
BS 5930: 1999
sizes ASTM D-2487: ASTM 1991
Test Sieve Aperture Size (mm) Sieve Identification Opening Size (mm)
50 3 inch 76.2
37.5 2 inch 50.8
28 1 ½ inch 38.1
20 1 inch 25.4
14 3/4 inch 19.0
10 3/8 inch 9.52
6.3 #4 4.75
5 #8 2.36
3.35 #10 2.00
2 #16 1.18
1.18 #20 0.850
0.600 #30 0.600 Sieve
0.425 #40 0.425
sizes
for BS
0.300 #50 0.300
0.212 #60 0.250
0.150 #100 0.150 and
0.063 #140 0.106
ASTM
- #200 0.075
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 9
Sieve sizes for ASTM
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Particle Size Distribution Test
1. Sieve Analysis Test

Discussion of the test will focus on :

 Apparatus
 Procedures of sieving
 Data processing
 Plotting of graph
 Analysis of test results

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Sieving
Apparatus

Particle size
distribution apparatus

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

RIFFLE BOX

Notes :
Maksimum mass retained for each sieve size

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Procedures of Sieving
Method 1 : WET SIEVING
 Wet sieving is carried out to remove fine-grained particles and to
determine the combined clay/silt fraction percentage given in BS
1377: 1990: Part 2: Test 9.2.
• A sub sample is first oven dried and sieved to separate the
coarsest particle (>20 mm).
 The sub sample is then immersed in water containing dispersing
agent of sodium hexametaphosphate of about 2 g/litre solution and
is allowed to stand before being washed away in a 63 m mesh
sieve.
• The retained fraction is again oven dried and passed into a
nest of sieves.
 The cumulative percentage passing is calculated and the combined
clay/silt fraction is determined from the weight difference expressed
as a percentage of the total sub sample from hydrometer test.
• The coarsest fraction (>20 mm) is sieved and the result is
combined to complete the grading curve.

Note : Details procedure of wet sieving can be referred in BS1377-2:1990 Clause 9.2.4
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Procedures of
Sieving
METHOD 2 : DRY SIEVING
 Dry sieving is carried out on
particles bigger than 63 m to
determine the coarse material in the
sub sample in accordance to BS
1377: 1990: Part 2: Test 9.3.
 The sub sample is first oven dried.
Fit the largest size test sieve
appropriate to the max size of the
material present to the receiver and
 placed
The neston the
is nest
then ofagitated
sieves. on the
shaker shown and the
weight
 retained in each percentage
The cumulative sieve is determined.
passing
is calculated to plot the grading
curve. BS Test Sieve
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Analysis of Test Results
Grading Characteristics
Based on the plot, the following characteristics
are determined in order to classify the
soil :-
 Percentage Composition
 Effective size = D10
D
 Uniformity Coefficient, C u  D6010
D30 2
 Coefficient of Gradation, C g 
D10 x D60
Grading characteristic is then categorised by following grade:
Cu > 5 is well graded
C u < 3 is poorly graded
Cg ranging between 0.5 to 2.0 to confirm as well graded soil
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Cg < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded (confirm the plotting
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Analysis of Test Results
100

Grading Curve
Percentage Finer

60

30

10

0
d10 d30 d60

Particle Size (mm)

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Tabulation of Test Data
EXAMPLE 1 : PSD
ANALYSIS ~ TABLE OF
CALCULATION
Data shown is
obtained from a
a typical three
stage dry sieving

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SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plotting of Graph
Well graded very sandy GRAVEL

PSD Graph

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Analysis of Test Results

Determination
of the
grading
characteristics
of the sample

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SOIL MECHANICS (CEG461) Thus the soil is classified as well gardedAvRerMy
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Tabulation of Test Data
EXAMPLE 2 : PSD
ANALYSIS ~ TABLE OF
CALCULATION
Data shown is
obtained from a
a typical three
stage sieving

SOIL MECHANICS ARMA/RFBMI/F20

FBAI
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plotting of PSD Graph

PSD Graph

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Fine Grain
Analysis
2. Grading of Fine Soil
METHOD 3 : Hydrometer Test (Sedimentation
Test)
 Hydrometer test is based on the
principles of sedimentation of soil
grained in water.
 This is based on Stoke’s law
which
-
expressed that: Hydrometer
  18 s w
D2
test bulb
where 
v is the velocity
s is the unit weight of soil particles,
w is the unit weight of water,
 is the viscosity of water, and
D is the diameter of soil
2
particles. 2
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Hydrometer Test
Hydrometer Test (Sedimentation Test) – cont…
 In the laboratory, hydrometer test is conducted on a sedimentation
cylinder of 1000 ml using 50 g of oven dried sub sample in
accordance to BS 1377-2:1990 Clause 9.5
 A dispersing solution is a mixture of 33 g of sodium
hexametaphosphate combined with 7 g of sodium carbonate is mixed
with water of 1000 ml and allowed to stand for 24 hrs. This solution
only last for ONE MONTH only. Always recorded the date
prepared.
 Add only 100ml of dispersing solution to the 50g of sample in conical
flask, put it on a mechanical shaker for at least 4hr or overnight.
Shake the sample until all soil is in suspension.
 Transfer the suspension onto the 63m sieve that place on the
empty receiver or container. Wash the suspension retained on the
sieve using a jet of distilled water from wash bottle. The amount of
distilled water used during this operation SHALL NOT EXCEED
500ml. 23
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Hydrometer Test
Hydrometer Test (Sedimentation Test) – cont…
 Transfer the suspension collected in the container to 1L measuring cylinder,
then add distilled water into that cylinder to make up to 1000ml. Use this
suspension for the sedimentation test ~ hydrometer method. Bring this
cylinder+suspension to the water bath for at least 1hr, then put a lid & shake
it for 60times in 2mins.
 The hydrometer bulb is then placed in the soil suspension SLOWLY and
measurements are recorded immediately at 0.5min, 1min, 2min and 4min.
Remove the hydrometer from suspension measuring cylinder and rinse in
distilled water.
 Reinsert the hydrometer at interval period, such as 8 min, 30min, 2hr, 4hr,
8hr, 16hr, 24hrs, 48hrs, or 72hrs. Do remove the hydrometer & rinse
immediately with distilled water for every measurement recorded at
initial time.
 Notes: Prior to hydrometer measurement, all corrections and calibration
relevant to hydrometer test NEED TO BE carried out; such as volume
calibration of hydrometer, scale calibration of hydrometer, meniscus
correction, etc as instructed in Clause 9.5 ~ 9.5.8
Note : Details procedure for hydrometer test can be referred in BS1377-2:1990 Clause 9.5 24
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Conical flask (contains sample Hydrometer serial no.
normally is printed
+ dispersion solution) on here. It is very
rotating mechanical shaker important to record
serial no. when
performing calibration.

Record the reading

using hydrometer
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Comparison of the Soil Classification System

A. BS 5930:1999 ~ Code of Practice for

Site Investigation

B. ASTM:D 2487-06 ~ Unified Soil

Classification System (USCS)

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
A. British Soil Classification System

 BS 5930: 1981: Code of

Practice for Site Investigation
 BS 1377: 1990: Part 2 Methods of
Test for Soil for Civil Engineering
Purposes
 BS 5930: 1999: Code of
Practice for Site Investigation
includes standard schemes for the
description of both soils and rocks which
makes important distinction between
material and mass.
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SOIL MECHANICS (CEG461) ARM/FBI/FAI 2017
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
BS Grading Characteristics ~ for coarse soils
 Well graded ~ A soil, in order to be classified
as well-graded, must have a good range of all
representative particle sizes between the
largest and the smallest. The soil in Figure 7
is well-graded.

 Poorly-graded ~ soils are either those

containing a narrow range of particle sizes
or those with some intermediate sizes
lacking. Soils with a limited range of particle
sizes are called "uniformly graded”. Soils
which have some intermediate size or sizes
not well represented or missing are called
"gap graded”. Sometimes gap graded is also
known as "step graded,”, or "skip graded”.
Figure 8 shows poorly graded soils
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
BS Grading Characteristics ~ for coarse soils

The well-graded soil is preferred for construction because :-

1. It can be easily compacted into a dense mass with
minimum voids.
2. The solid mass is denser because of the interlocking of
the particles which enable it to support heavier loads.
3. Since the particles are fitted, it realizes the best
downward load distribution.
4. The tendency for displacement of individual grains by
either loads or moisture is minimized because they are
locked in place.

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
BS Plasticity Chart for the classification of fine soils

Plasticity Chart in
accordance to
BS

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Re produce from BS 5930:1981 - This table also can be found in Whitlow, R. (2001), Table 2.2 & 2.3, pg 18~23.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
British Soil Classification System
Superseded by
BS5930:1999
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Superseded by
BS5930:1999

SOILSOILMEMECHACHANICSNICS(ECG(ECG426)413)
Reproduced from BS5930:1981 - This table also can be found in Whitlow, R. (2001), Table 2.2 & ARM/FBIARM
2.3, pg 18~23.
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
British Soil Classification
System

The dominant
secondary
fraction comes
immediately
before the
principal soil
term.

BS5930:1999 – USED THIS LATEST VERSION OF

SOOILILMEMECHACHANICSNICS(ECG(ECG426)413) COARSE/FINE COMPOSITION % TOARM/FBIARM
NAME SOIL TYPES
 Soil Classification (PSD Curve) ~ BS
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION British Standard
PS4
Job No. Project BH/Pit no. Date
Site Client Sample no. Tested by Beta Copy
Test method Soil Descrip. Depth (m) Checked by

GRADING

0.063

0.212

0.425
British Standard Sieves, (mm)

0.15

1.18

3.35

37.5
0.3

0.6

6.3

28

50
63
75
10

14

20
CHARACTERISTIC

5
100 S
% Gravel 0.0
0
90 % Sand 0.0
0
% Silt 100.0
80 0
% Clay 0.0
D
B 0
70 D90 (mm)
F C
Percentage Passing, (%)

D85(mm)
60
D60 (mm)
E D50 (mm)
50

D30 (mm)
40
D15 (mm)

30 D10 (mm)

A Cu
20
Cg

10 Soil Classification

0
0.2 0.6 2 20
0.001 0.002 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.1 6 10 60 100
1
particle diameter, (mm) Remarks :
fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine medium coarse
CLAY 35

Cobbles
SILT SAND GRAVEL

© BBB2000
 Soil Classification (PSD Curve) ~ BS

Grading characteristics according to BS5930:1999 for Soil A to F

are as below :
BS5930:1999-Section 6 ~ British Soil Classification System
Grading Characteristics Plasticity
Soil descriptions
Grading G S M C D60 D30 D10 wL wP Ip (group & sub-group)
Cu Cg
curve % % % % mm mm mm % % %
well graded very sandy
A 78 22 0 0 20 3.7 0.6 33.3 1.1 - - - GRAVEL
gap graded silty very gravelly
B 44 49 7 0 10 0.16 0.08 125 0.03 - - - SAND
C 0 100 0 0 0.5 0.4 0.3 1.7 1.1 - - - uniformly graded SAND

D 0 58 40 2 - - - - - 33 27 6 sandy SILT of low plasticity

slightly sandy CLAY of

E 0 30 29 41 - - - - - 45 17 28
intermediate plasticity
F 0 0 43 57 - - - - - 60 25 35 CLAY of high plasticity

Compare the soil names obtained from PSD curves analysis for Soil A to F between BS and ASTM 36
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
B. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 The original form of the Unified Soil Classification

System was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for
the use of airfield construction works undertaken by
the Army Corps of Engineers during World War II.
 The system was revised in 1952 with the cooperation
of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, widely used as
ASTM Designation: D 2487-06 (current edition
approved). This system classifies soil into two types,
mainly:
i) Coarse grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in
nature with less than 50 % passing through the No. 200
sieve (0.075 mm).
ii) Fine grained soils with 50 % or more passing
through the No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm).
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ASTM: D 2487-06 Classifying Fine Soils
Latest version of USCS

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 ASTM: D 2487-06 Latest version of USCS

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ASTM: D 2487-06 Classifying Coarse Soils
Latest version of USCS

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 Soil Classification
Plasticity Chart for fine soils ~ ASTM

SOIL MECHANICS ARMA/RFBMI/FFBAI

 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Comparison of sizes distribution
Figures below give a general overview of the British
Standard range size particles and the American Standard
range size particles, respectively, which are carried out
based on the weight percentages falling within the band
size represented by these divisions and sub divisions.

0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0. 0.2 0.6 1 2 6 1 20

0.001 0.002 60 100
6 1 2 6 1 particle diameter, (mm) 0

fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine medium coarse

CLAY
SILT SAND GRAVEL

British Standard Sizes Distribution

0.002 0.006 0.01 0.0 2 0.0740.06 0.42

0.1 0.2 2 0.6 1 2 19.1 6 10 20
76.2 60 100
0.001 0.002

4.76
f ine medium coarse fine medium
particle coarse
diameter, ( mm ) f ine Fine medium coarse
CLAY SILT Coarse
SILT SAND GRAVEL

ASTM Sizes Distribution

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 Soil Classification (PSD Curve) ~ ASTM
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Job No. Project BH/Pit no. Date

ASTM
CLAY SILT
PS4 SAND GRAVEL Beta Copy

Site Client3
6
0.075 mm 4.76
Sample no. mm Tested by 76.2 mm GRADING

0.212

0.425
British Standard Sieves, (mm)

0.15

1.18

3.35

37.5
.0

0.3

0.6

6.3

28

50
63
75
10

14

20
0 CHARACTERISTIC

5
100 Test method Soil Descrip. Depth (m) Checked by
S
% Gravel 0.0
0
90 % Sand 0.0
0
% Silt 100.0
80 0
% Clay 0.0
D
B 0
70 D90 (mm)
F C
Percentage Passing, (%)

D85(mm)
60
D60 (mm)
E D50(mm)
50

D30 (mm)
40
D15 (mm)

30 D10 (mm)

A Cu
20
Cg

10 Soil Classification

0
0.075 mm 4.76 mm 76.2 mm
0.0 0.1 2 20
0.001 0.002 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.2 1 0.6 6 10 60 100
6 particle diameter, (mm)
Remarks :
fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine medium
CLAY coarse SILT les
SAND GRAVEL 43
CLAY b
SILT SAND
GRAVEL Cob
© BBB2000
 Soil Classification (PSD Curve) ~ ASTM

Grading characteristics according to ASTM: D 2487-06 for

Soil A to F are as below :
ASTM: D 2487-06 ~ Unified Soil Classification System
Grading Characteristics Plasticity
Soil descriptions
Grading G S M C D60 D30 D10 LL PL PI (group & sub-group)
Cu Cg
curve % % % % mm mm mm % % %
Well-graded gravel with
A 67 33 0 0 20 3.7 0.6 33.3 1.1 - - - sand (GW)
Poorly graded sand with silt
B 43 48 9 0 10 0.16 0.08 125 0.03 - - - and gravel (SP-SM)
C 0 100 0 0 0.5 0.4 0.3 1.7 1.1 - - - Poorly graded sand (SP)

D 0 50 48 2 - - - - - 33 27 6 Sandy silt (ML)

E 0 22 37 41 - - - - - 45 17 28 Lean clay with sand (CL)

F 0 0 43 57 - - - - - 60 25 35 Fat clay (CH)

Notes : Capital letters are not used to indicate principal soil types in
ASTM
Compare the soil names obtained from PSD curves analysis for Soil A to F between BS and ASTM 44
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS

1.12.2 Classification of Fine Soil

Fine-grained soil particles diameter that fallen
between 62 micron to 2 micron are known as silt
and particles having a diameter smaller than 2
micron is called clay.

Since Plasticity of fine soils has an important

effect on the engineering properties of soils such
as the shear strength and compressibility,
therefore plastic consistency is used in the basis
of classification for fine soils also known as
Atterberg Limits.

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS

1.12.2 Classification of Fine Soil

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of

the critical water contents of a fine-grained soil:
its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.

Depending on its water content, a soil may

appear in one of four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and
liquid. In each state, the consistency and behavior of a
soil is different and consequently so are its engineering
properties.

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS

Consistency relationships
Volum Ip
e
Natural water content, w

Plastic Liquid
Va Semi-
Vd plastic
Vs Solid
solid
% Water
wS wP wL Content

FOUR STAGES OF CONSISTENCY LIMIT OF SOIL

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS

1.12.2 Classification of Fine Soil

The boundary water content between liquid and plastic
state is called LIQUID LIMIT

In the plastic state, the soil can be moulded to different

shapes with out rupturing it, due to plasticity.

If the water content is further reduced, the clay sample

changes from plastic state to the semi-plastic state it is
called as PLASTIC LIMIT

When the water content of the soil mass is decrease, the

volume of soil mass does not decrease any further but
remain the same.
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS

1.12.2 Classification of Fine Soil

The sample changes from the semi-solid to solid state.

The boundary water content is called SHRINGKAGE
LIMIT

The two most important terms are the liquid and plastic
limits which represent respectively the upper and lower
bound of the plastic states and the range of this state is
given by their differences termed as plasticity index, IP.
Ip = wL - wP

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Plasticity Classification - BS

The common degree of plasticity used are given below:

i) Low plasticity: wL < 35 %
ii) Intermediate plasticity: wL = 35 % - 50 %
iii) High plasticity: wL = 50 % - 70 %
iv) Very high plasticity: wL = 70 % - 90
v) Extremely high plasticity: % wL > 90 %
The relationship between soil’s natural water content and its
consistency limits, i.e. its natural or in situ consistency, is given
by the liquidity index (IL)
ww
I L P
IP
i) IL < 0: the soil is in semi-plastic solid or solid state.
ii) 0 < IL < 1: the soil is in plastic state.
iii) IL >1: the soil is in liquid state.
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Plasticity Chart - BS

Plasticity Chart in
accordance to
BS
4
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Chart - ASTM

Plasticity Chart in
accordance to ASTM

SOIL MECHANICS ARMA/RFBMI/FFBAI

 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS
The degree of plasticity of the clay fraction itself is
termed as the activity of the clay

IP
Activity 
% clay particles ( 2
um)
Activity of clays
Minerals Activity Soil Activity
Muscovite 0.25 Kaolin clay 0.4 – 0.5

Kaolinite 0.40 Gacial till and loess 0.5 – 0.75

Illite 0.90 Most British clays including London 0.75 – 1.25
Clay
Montmorillonite > 1.25 Organic estuarine clay > 1.25
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits

13. Determination of Consistency Limits

The three consistency limits (wL, wP and wS) are
determined by laboratory tests, namely the Liquid
Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit Tests.

Discussion of the tests will focus on :

 Apparatus
 Data processing
 Plotting of graph
 Analysis of test results
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Determination of Consistency Limits

Cone Penetration &

Casagrande Apparatus
for Liquid Limit Test

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits
1. Determination of Liquid Limit
1. Cone Penetration Method
Procedure

 The cone penetrometer consist of a stainless steel

cone of 35 mm long with an apex angle of 30o, which
has a mass of 80 g.
 The sample tested is taken from BS sieve of 425 mm,
mixed thoroughly with distilled water into a smooth
paste and stored in an air tight container for about 24
hrs to allow full penetration of water into the sample.
 At the time of testing, the soil is remixed for 10
minutes and a portion of it is placed in a brass cup.
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits
 The cone is then lowered so that it just touches the
surface of the soil paste and the dial gauge reading is set
with the reading noted.
 Then the cone is released to penetrate the soil paste for
exactly 5 s and the first dial gauge reading is taken.
 The same procedure is repeated several times on the
same paste mix to obtain the average penetration and
the small portion of the soil is taken to determine its
water content.
 The whole penetration procedure is repeated with paste
mix of different water contents, five or six times in all. A
graph of penetration vs water content is drawn and the
liquid limit corresponds to a penetration of 20 mm.

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits

Analysis of Test Data

n (mm)
Penetratio

20 mm penetration

Liquid Limit Water

Content (%)

Sample of Cone Penetration Method

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Liquid Limit

Determination
of Liquid
Limit using
Cone
Penetration
Apparatus

Tabulation
and plot

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Casagrande Method

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SOIL MECHANICS (CEG461) ARM/FBI/FAI 2017
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Liquid Limit

2. Casagrande Method

Procedure

 The Casagrande’s device consists of a brass cup and a

hard rubber base.
 The brass cup is dropped onto the base by a cam
operated by a crank.
 The soil paste is placed in the brass cup and a groove is
then cut at the centre using a standard grooving tool. By
using the crank, the cup is lifted and dropped at a height
of 10 mm.

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Determination of Liquid Limit

Procedure - cont…

 The moisture content required to close a distance of

12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows
is defined to be its liquid limit.
 This procedure is repeated to obtain at least five or six
points based on the number of blow, N.

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Liquid Limit

Water Content (%)

Liquid Limit

25 no. of blow
Number of
Blows, N

Figure shows the

preparation of sample in the
brass cup and the sample
before and after the test.
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Sample of Casagrande’s Method
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Determination of Liquid Limit

Determination
of Liquid
Limit using
Casagrande
Apparatus

Tabulation
and plot

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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Plastic Limit

2. Plastic Limit

Procedure
 Approximately 20 g of the soil paste is moulded in hand
until it dries sufficiently for slight cracks to appear.
 The sample is then divided into two approximately
equal portions and these are again divided
into four sub-samples.
 One of the sub-samples is taken and rolled into a ball
and then it is rolled on a glass sheet to form a
thread of soil. The rolling using the palm and fingers
with light pressure is continued until the diameter of
the thread reaches 3 mm.
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 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Plastic Limit

Procedure - cont….

 This procedure is repeated until the thread starts to

crumble as the diameter reaches 3 mm.
 The other three sub samples are rolled based on the
previous procedure and their combined water
content is obtained.
 The average of the two water contents from both of
the samples are reported to be the plastic limit of
the soil.

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Determination of Plastic Limit

Figure shows how plastic limit is obtained (1) apparatus for

plastic limit, (2) preparation of specimen, (3) the soil is rolled
into a thread of 3 mm and (4) crumbling of the soil at 3 mm
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Determination of Linear Shrinkage

1.13.3 Linear Shrinkage Test

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Determination of Linear Shrinkage

Determination of Linear Shrinkage

• For soils with less clay content, the liquid and plastic
limit tests may not produce reliable results.
• Therefore, an approximation of the plasticity index may
be obtained by measuring the linear shrinkage using
this expression:
I P  2.3 x LS

• The soil is prepared for the liquid limit test and a 150 g
specimen is taken for the linear shrinkage test where
the specimen is remixed thoroughly with distilled water
to form a smooth paste at approximately the liquid limit
of the soil.
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Determination of Linear Shrinkage

Determination of Linear Shrinkage … cont…

• The soil/water paste is placed onto the brass mould
taking care that air is not entrapped with the surface
struck-off level.

• The soil is air dried at 60o – 65o C until it has shrunk

clear and it is then dried in an oven at 105o – 110o C.

• The length of the sample is measured and the linear

shrinkage is obtained using this equation:


LS  -
length after drying 
initial length x 100
 
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