Artificial

ArtificialIntelligence
Intelligence::
1)1) Charniak,
Charniak,E.E.&&McDermott,
McDermott,D. D.1985
1985
Introduction
IntroductiontotoArtificial
ArtificialIntelligence
Intelligence
Reading,
Reading,Massachusetts:
Massachusetts:Addison
Addison––Wesley
Wesley
2)2) Rich,
Rich,E.
E.1983.
1983.
Artificial
ArtificialIntelligence,
Intelligence,
New
NewYork:
York:McGrew
McGrew––HillHill
3)3) Winston,
Winston,P.P.H.H.1984.
1984.
Artificial
Artificial Intelligence (2ndEdition)
Intelligence (2 nd
Edition)
Reading,
Reading,Massachusetts:
Massachusetts:Addison
Addison––Wesley
Wesley
4)4) Artificial
ArtificialIntelligence
Intelligence&&the
theDesign
DesignofofExpert
ExpertSystems
Systems
By:
By:George
GeorgeF.
F.Luger
Luger &&William
WilliamA.
A.stubblefield
stubblefield 2009
2009
Expert
ExpertSystems:
Systems:
1)
1) Introduction
IntroductionTo
ToExpert
ExpertSystems
Systems
F.
F.Hayes
Hayes––Roth
Roth
Addison
Addison

2)
2) Expert
ExpertSystems
SystemsTechniques
Techniques&&Applications
Applications
P.
P.Jackson
Jackson
Addison
Addison
•• AI
AIisisthe
thestudy
studyof
ofMental
Mentalfaculties
facultiesthrough
throughthe
the
use
useofofComputational
Computationalmodels.
models.

•• AI
AIisisthe
thepart
partof
ofComputer
ComputerScience
Scienceconcerned
concernedwith
with
designing
designingintelligent
intelligentComputers
ComputersSystem,
System,that
thatis,
is,
systems
systemsthat
thatexhibit
exhibitthe
thecharacteristics
characteristicswe
weassociate
associate
with
withintelligence
intelligenceininhuman
humanbehavior:-
behavior:-Learning,
Learning,
Reasoning,
Reasoning,Solving
SolvingProblems,….
Problems,….
 AI
AI &
& The
The World
World

AI
AIResearches
Researchesare
aretrying
tryingto
tocreate
createaacomputer
computer
which
whichthink
think

AI
AIapplications
applications:-:-

Robotics
Robotics

Natural
Naturallanguage
languageprocessing
processing

Vision
Vision

Speech
Speech

Expert
Expertsystems
systems
-6-
 What
What is
is AI
AI about?
about?

AIAIisisgetting
gettingcomputers
computersto
todo
dothings
thingsthat
thatseem
seemto
to
be
beintelligent
intelligent


“INTELLIGENCE”
“INTELLIGENCE”isisaavague
vagueword
word

AI
AInot
notwell
welldefined
definedfield
field


Advanced
Advancedsw swengineering
engineering(sophisticated
(sophisticatedsw
sw
techniques
techniquesfor
forhard
hardproblems
problemsthat
that CAN’T
CAN’T bebe
solved
solvedin
inan
aneasy
easyway)
way)..

Non
Non––numeric
numericways
waysof
ofsolving
solvingproblems
problems..
AI
AIisisconcerned
concernedwith
withprogramming
programmingcomputers
computers
to
toperform
performtasks
tasksthat
thatare
arepresently
presentlydone
doneby
by
human.
human.
AI
AIgoal:-
goal:-
To
Tobuild
buildaaperson
personor
oran
ananimal
animal

Fundamental
Fundamental assumption
assumption

What
Whatthe
thebrain
braindoes
doesmay
maybebethought
thoughtof
ofat
atsome
some
level
levelas
asaakind
kindof
ofcomputation
computation
AI
AI includes
includes getting
getting computer
computer to
to ::

Communicating
Communicatingin
inNatural
NaturalLanguage
Language(NLP)
(NLP)


Remember
Remembercomplicated
complicatedinterrelated
interrelatedfact,
fact,and
anddraw
draw
conclusion
conclusionfrom
fromthem
them(Inference)
(Inference)


Plan
Plansequence
sequenceof
ofaction
actionto
toaccomplish
accomplishgoals
goals(Planning)
(Planning)


Offer
Offeradvice
advicebased
basedon
oncomplicated
complicatedrules
rules(ES)
(ES)


Look
Lookthrough
throughcameras
cameras&
&see
seewhat’s
what’sthere
there(Vision)
(Vision)


Move
Moveobjects
objects(Robotics)
(Robotics)
 Why
Why AI
AI is
is not
not aa science
science ??

AI
AIdoes
doesnot
notquite
quitefit
fitin
inwith
withother
othercategories
categoriesof
ofscience.
science.


Most
Mostarea
areaof
ofAI
AIdo
donot
notdevelop
developin
inthe
theway
waythat
thataa
mathematical
mathematicalarea
area traditional
traditionaldevelops.
develops.


Ai
Aidoes
doesnot
notfit
fitin
inthe
thegeneral
generalmodel
modelof
ofaaphysical
physicalscience.
science.


InInAI
AIwe
weare
arealmost
almostnever
neverininthe
thebusiness
businessof
offinding
findingtheories
theories
or
ordescriptions
descriptionsfor
forexisting
existingphysical
physicalphenomena
phenomenawhich
whichareare
identical
identicalby
byexperiment,
experiment,ororusing
usingexperiments
experimentsto tolook
lookin
in
nature
naturefor
forphenomena
phenomenawhich
whichthose
thosetheories
theoriesor
ordescriptions
descriptions
predict.
predict.
AI
AI can
can be
be distinguished
distinguished from
from other
other sciences
sciences in
in that
that itit
refers
refers to
to objects
objects (Programs
(Programs or or conceptual
conceptual structures
structures
capable
capable of
of being
being realized
realized in
in programs)
programs) which
which are
are created
created
by
by humans
humans rather
rather than
than objects
objects having
having aa prior
prior natural
natural
existence.
existence.

AI can be viewed as a technology

Deals with created objects

 Mental
MentalFaculties
Faculties

INPUT
INPUT INTERNALS
INTERNALS OUTPUT
OUTPUT

IR
IR IR
IR
Vision Robotics
Deduction &
Search
planning
Explanation
IR
IR Learning IR
IR
Language Speech

IR
IR: :Internal
InternalRepresentation
Representation
 Major
Major Application
Application area
area
Fundamental concerns

 Knowledge
KnowledgeRepresents
Represents: :Addresses
Addressesthe theproblem
problemofofcapture
capturethe
thefull
full
range
rangeofofknowledge
knowledgerequired
requiredfor
forintelligent
intelligentbehavior
behaviorformal
formal
language.
language.

 Search
Search: :IsIsaaproblem
problem––solving
solvingtechniques
techniquesthat
thatsystematically
systematically
explore
exploreaaspace
spaceofofproblem
problemstate.
state.
1)1) Game
Gameplaying
playing (board
(boardgame)
game)
—— Well
Well––defined
definedset
setofofrules.
rules.
— Easy
— Easyrepresentation
representationofofboard
board
— Generate
— Generateextremely
extremelylarge
largesearch
searchspaces
spaces(heuristics)
(heuristics)
2)2) Automated
AutomatedReasoning
Reasoningand
andTheorem
Theoremproving.
proving.
Representing
Representingthe
theproblem
problemdescription
descriptionand
andrelevant
relevant
background
backgroundinformation
informationasaslogical
logicalaxioms
axiomsand
andtreating
treating
problem
probleminstances
instancesas
astheorems
theoremstotobebeproved.
proved.
3)3) Expert
ExpertSystems
Systems
Problems
Problems––solving
solvingininaadomain
domain––specific
specificknowledge.
knowledge.
Expert
Expertknowledge
knowledgeininaacombination
combinationofof::
 Theoretical
Theoreticalunderstanding
understandingofofthe
theproblem
problem
 AACollection
Collectionofofheuristic
heuristicproblem
problem––solving
solvingrule
rule
(DENDRAL
(DENDRAL, ,MYCIN
MYCIN, ,PROSPECTOR
PROSPECTOR, ,INTERNIST
INTERNIST, ,XCON
XCON).).

-14-
 example:
•R1/XCON - configured VAX computer systems on the basis of customers'
needs. McDermott, 1980.

•PROSPECTOR - interpreted geological data as potential evidence for mineral

deposits. Duda, Hart, et al 1976.

•MYCIN - diagnosed blood infection. Shortliffe, 1976.

•INTERNIST - medical expert systems

•DENDRAL - advised the user on how to interpret the output from a mass
spectrograph

•MACSYMA -advised the user on how to solve complex maths problems.

4)4) Natural
Naturallanguage
languageunderstanding
understanding::creation
creationofofcomputer
computerthat
thatare
are
capable
capableofofunderstanding
understandinghuman
humanlanguage.
language.
5)5) Planning
Planningrobotics.
robotics.
Planning
Planningassumes
assumesaarobot robotthat
thatisiscapable
capableofofperforming
performingcertain
certain
atomic
atomicaction
action, ,ItItattempts
attemptstotofind
findaasequence
sequenceofofthose
thoseaction
actionthat
that
will
willaccomplish
accomplishsome somehigher
higher––level
leveltasks
taskssuch
suchas
asmoving
movingacross
across
an
anobstacle
obstacle––filled
filledroom.
room.
6)6) Machine
MachineLearning.
Learning.
Unlike
Unlikeaahuman
humanbeing
being, ,expert
expert, ,ififit’s
it’sgiven
giventhe
thesame
sameororsimilar
similar
problems
problemsaasecond
secondtime
time, ,ititwill
willnot
notremember
rememberthe thesolution.
solution.ItIt
performs
performsthe
thesame
samesequence
sequenceofofcomputation
computationagain.again.
 THE
THE AI
AI SCIENTIFIC
SCIENTIFIC ISSUES
ISSUES
What
Whatare
arethe
thecentral
centralscientific
scientificissues
issuesofofAI
AIfield
fieldfrom
fromWhich
Whichthis
thismore
moreapplied
applied
research
researchdraws
drawsit’s
it’sinspiration?
inspiration?
1)1) Knowledge
Knowledge Representation
Representation : : How
How shall
shall the
the knowledge
knowledge ofof the
the field
field be
be
represented
representedasasdata
datastructure
structureininthe
thememory
memoryofofthe
thecomputer
computer, ,sosothat
thatthey
they
can
canbe
beconveniently
convenientlyaccessed
accessedfor
forproblem
problem––solving?
solving?

1)1) Knowledge
Knowledgeutilization
utilization: :How
Howcancanthis
thisknowledge
knowledgebebeused
usedininproblems
problems––
solving
solving??What
Whatdesign
designfor
forthe
theinference
inferenceengine
engineare
areavailable
available??

3)3) Knowledge
Knowledgeacquisition
acquisition: :How
Howisisititpossible
possibletotoacquire
acquirethe
theknowledge
knowledgesoso
important
importantfor
forproblems
problems––solving
solvingautomatically
automatically. .
 AI is a part of computer science

Based
Basedon
ontheoretical
theoreticaland
andapplied
appliedprinciples
principlesthat
thatfield:
field:

Data
Datastructure
structureused
usedininknowledge
knowledgerepresentation
representation
Algorithms
Algorithmsneeded
neededto
toapply
applythat
thatknowledge
knowledge
Language
Languageand
andprogramming
programmingtechniques
techniquesused
usedininthere
there
implementation
implementation
The
Theproblem
problemofofdefining
definingA.I.
A.I.becomes
becomesone
oneofofdefining
definingintelligence
intelligenceitself.
itself.

1)Is
1)IsIntelligence
Intelligenceaasingle
singlefaculty
faculty, ,or
orisisjust
justaaname
namefor
foraacollection
collectionofofdistinct
distinct
unrelated
unrelatedabilities?
abilities?
2)To
2)Towhat
whatextent
extentisisintelligence
intelligencelearned
learnedasasapposed
apposedtotohaving
havingan
anaapriori
priori
existence?
existence?
3)What
3)Whatdoes
doeshappen
happenwhen
whenlearning
learningoccurs?
occurs?
4)What
4)Whatisiscreativity
creativity??Intuition
Intuition??
5)Can
5)CanIntelligence
Intelligencebebeinferred
inferredfrom
fromobservable
observablebehavior
behavior, ,or
ordoes
doesititrequire
require
evidence
evidenceofofparticular
particularinternal
internalmechanism
mechanism??
6)How
6)Howisisknowledge
knowledgerepresented
representedininnerve
nervetissue
tissueofofliving
livingbeing,
being,and
andwhat
whatlessons
lessons
does
doesthis
thishave
havefor
forthe
thedesign
designofofintelligence
intelligencemachines
machines??
7)Is
7)Isititeven
evenpossible
possibletotoachieve
achieveintelligence
intelligenceon
onaacomputer
computer, ,or
ordoes
doesan
anintelligent
intelligent
entity
entity require the richness of sensation and experience that might be foundonly
require the richness of sensation and experience that might be found only
ininaabiological existence?
biological existence?
•• All
Allthese
theseunanswered
unansweredquestions
questionshave
havehelped
helpedtotoshape
shapethe
theproblems
problems
and
andsolution
solutionmethodologies
methodologiesthat
thatconstitute
constitutethe
thecore
coreofofmodern
modernA.I.
A.I.
•• Different
Differentinterpretations
interpretationshave
havebeen
beenused
usedby bydifferent
differentresearchers
researchersasas
defining
definingthe
thescope
scopeand
andview
viewofofArtificial
ArtificialIntelligence.
Intelligence.

1.1.One
Oneview
viewisisthat
thatartificial
artificialintelligence
intelligenceisisabout
aboutdesigning
designingsystems
systems
that
that are
are asas intelligent
intelligent asas humans.
humans. ThisThis view
view involves
involves trying
trying toto
understand
understand humanhuman thought
thought and and an
an effort
effort toto build
build machines
machines that
that
emulate
emulate thethe human
human thought
thought process.
process. This
This view
view isis the
the cognitive
cognitive
science
scienceapproach
approachtotoAI. AI.

2.The
2.The second
second approach
approach isis best
best come
come toto life
life by
by the
the concept
concept ofof the
the
Turing
Turing Test.
Test. Turing
Turing held
held that
that inin future
future computers
computers can can be be
programmed
programmedtotoacquire
acquireabilities
abilitiesequaling
equalinghuman
humanintelligence.
intelligence.
 Turing Test

Consider There are two rooms, A and B. One of the rooms

contains a computer. The other contains a human.

The interrogator is outside and does not know which one is a

computer. He can ask questions through a teletype and
receives answers from both A and B.

The interrogator needs to identify whether A or B are

humans. To pass the Turing test, the machine has to fool
the interrogator into believing that it is human
 The
Theturning
turningtest
test
1)1) The
Theturning
turningtest
testmeasures
measuresthetheperformance
performanceofofan
anallegedly
allegedly
intelligent
intelligentmachine
machineagainst
againstthat
thathuman
humanbeing.
being.
2)2) The
Theintelligence
intelligencetotodistinguish
distinguishthe
thecomputer
computerfrom
fromthe
thehuman
human
being
beinginterrogator.
interrogator.
3)3) Comparing
Comparingmachine
machineperformance
performanceon
onaagiven
givenset
setofofproblems
problems
totothat
thatofofaahuman
humanexpert.
expert.
3. Logic and laws of thought deals with studies of ideal or
rational thought process and inference.

The emphasis in this case is on the inferencing mechanism,

and its properties.

That is how the system arrives at a conclusion, or the

reasoning behind its selection of actions is very important
in this point of view.