CCGL9035

Challenges of Global Governance:

Past and Present (2021)

Tutorial 3 – International State System and Global Order

Mr. Adrian LAM Man-Ho
(u3519028@connect.hku.hk and lammanho@hku.hk)
Office Hour: By appointment
Mid Term
Response
Paper
  Analyse a transnational issue using theories of global
governance discussed in the readings and lecture.
 The response paper consists of roughly 1,500 to 2,500
words. The word count does not include references.
 This assignment will be due 11:59 pm, March 7, 2021
Mid Term (Sunday), which is also the midnight right before the
Response start of your reading week of this semester.
 Submit SOFT COPY only to Turnitin on Moodle!
Paper
 Takes up 30% of your final course grade!
 Treats this as a good chance to check your current
understanding of the course content and polish your
writing skills since you need all these important
knowledge and skills for your final examination!
  Decide by yourself!
 NO NEED to get our approval!
Which  Some examples include refugee crisis, climate change,
transnational trade war, and ethnic cleansing, but the issue you have
selected must affect at least two countries even if the
issue should I issue is concentrated in a single country.
focus on for  Of course you can make use of the big topics covered
the response throughout the course, but feel free to think beyond
the box to show your critical and creative thinking!
paper?  More examples are available in the readings, lectures,
and tutorials. Do take a look at some of the authentic
sample papers available on course Moodle page.
How can I
produce a
good piece of
essay in
university?
  Introduction
 Context: What is the basic information that the reader should
understand before looking into your analysis?
 Motive: Why someone would or should read your paper?
 Puzzle: Any interesting paradox or tension or issue?
 Question: How can you frame a concrete research question
with both the scope and issues of inquiry?
Typical  Thesis: What is your clear, concise, and nuanced statement that
should be arguable and falsifiable?
Structure of a  Structure: What are the building blocks of your paper?

Academic  Body Paragraphs

 Evidence: What data, cases, examples, and readings would you
Paper bring in to support your thesis?
 Parts: Can you further divide your arguments in separate
paragraphs with clear and logical flow?
 Conclusion
 Summary: How your wide range of ideas and evidences
throughout the paper shed light on your thesis?
 Implications: What are some of possible significance or
implications associated with your paper?
 1. Telling a story
How to create 2. Giving historical or background information
a good context 3. Giving statistics, facts, or other hard data
for my paper? 4. Offering key definitions
5. Posing questions pertinent to the topic
 1. Narrow down your analysis with careful framing
 Start with broad issue and select critical aspects
 Justify to your audience regarding all the choices made
2. Support your analysis with evidence and literature
 Avoid newspaper commentaries which are non-theoretical,
selective use of evidence, and subjective interpretations
 Unfold all the assumptions, conditions, and interpretations of all
Some General the claims you have put forward in the paper
Remarks for  Respond to the challenges by offering some rebuttals for the
possible counter-arguments or counter-examples
the Mid Term 3. Conceptualise and theorise your discussion
Response  Do not assume your readers know all the matters
 Not merely outlining the descriptive details of the case
Paper  Synthesise and apply theories and concepts learnt in class
 Highlight some broader and generalised implications
4. Demonstrate intellectual inquiry and critique
 Not simply summarise and paraphrase previous discussions
 Reconcile perspectives from the wide range of materials
 Show how the strengths and limitations of the theories
 Think about the overall assessment of your analysis
 5. Careful and extensive use of academic materials
 Get rid of the background noise as much as possible
 Only bring in the relevant and appropriate matters
 What you put in your paper is often far more important
 Engage with both primary and secondary scholarship
6. Pay special attention to structure and organisation
Some General  Not simply putting all things together randomly
Remarks for  Every part of your paper should be linked to your thesis
 Refer back to the larger writing prompt from time to time
the Mid Term  Aim for having a structurally logical and cogent discussion
Response 7. Be aware of the language and presentation
 Readers expect clear and grammatically correct English
Paper  Avoid obscure and pretentious words
 Cliches and slogans will not strengthen your arguments
 Proofread your work carefully to avoid careless mistakes
 An outline with sub-headings and key messages is helpful
 Make good use of tables, diagrams, and footnotes
 Write up a full draft for individual and peer review
  Offer a research question based on the issue
 Compare and contrast two theories
 Introduce some of the key assumptions and
Some of the ideas of the TWO theories as the start
Components  Contextualise the abstract theories into the
of the instances of the practical case
Response  Very often you are going to support one as
best, argue for synthesis with the combination
Paper of two theories, or come up with your own one
in the overall assessment part
 Need supporting evidence to defend claims
Which theories
Realism
should I use for
writing up the Liberalism
mid term
response Constructivism
paper?
Selectorate Theory
Can you recall
the key ideas
of the three
schools of
thoughts?
 Feature Realism
Nature of the Anarchic when sovereign states
international need to ensure survival and
system security in the self-help world
Relevant States as the central and usually
actors only and unitary actor
Important Power as relative and hierarchical,
resources with military being the key
Central Conflict and zero-sum calculations
dynamics as the normal dynamic, with focus
on distributions of power
Anarchy Fundamental structural condition
generating fear, uncertainty, and
conflict among states, followed by
persistent security dilemmas
Diversity States have different levels of
power and competing with one
another all the time by securing
their interests and influence
Complexity Generated from stratification of
power which is unevenly
distributed around the world and
competing self-interests of states
Liberalism
Formal anarchy with existence of complex
interdependence, shared norms and
international institutions
State is not the only important actor when
non-state actors are also crucial
Multidimensional, situation-specific, and
context-dependent soft and hard power
Cooperation, co-existence of competition
and conflict, positive-sum calculations due
to mutual interests and goals
Meaningful characteristic of the
international system, generating security
dilemmas and further complicating
cooperation and coordination
State and non-state actors, with different
perspectives, values, institutions,
preferences struggle to cooperate and
communicate at many occasions
Highly interdependent webs of
connections between states and societies
create both opportunity and challenges for
the actual international politics
Constructivism
Anarchy is socially constructed by
ideas and interactions but not
determined by the environment
Involvement of states, organisations,
people, experiences, ideas, and values
Ideational power and influence
determined by social construction
Conflict and cooperation, but rapidly
changing patterns from state to state
as well as from time to time
Structure of the international system
that is determined by produced and
reproduced ideas, interactions, and
statements among people
Different social definitions of the world
and other actors when the meaning of
material world and tangible resources
of power are affected by them
Fashioned by the changing social
constructions of the world, whereas
interactions shape expectations and
behaviours of states and individuals
  The theory is based on a simple idea that political systems of
any description can be distilled into two dimensions,
including the winning coalition (W) and the selectorate (S).
 The definition of S is the group of people who have a
government-granted say in the selection of leaders. Within
the group of S, W is the smaller and most crucial group
What is the whose support endows the leadership with political power.
 In short, in a political system with a certain population size,
general the only people who are relevant to the leaders are S, who
conception of have some influence in leadership selection, and W, the key
cluster of people whose preference truly matters.
selectorate
theory?
  According to the theory, in every political system, the key
objective of potential leaders is to gain power by securing
the support of W, and to maintain it once they are in power.
They do that by offering a mixture of public and private
What is the goods. Public goods, such as welfare, healthcare, and
infrastructure, are assumed to benefit everyone in the
general society, including even those outside of S. Private goods, on
conception of the other hand, will exclusively go to members of W.
 The choice of the leader depends on the selection of
selectorate members of S, who has to choose a policy package from
theory? those offered by the incumbent leader and challengers.
Members of S want to lend their support to the right
candidate (i.e., the next leader), as they will likely become
part of W (as the coalition necessary for the survival of the
leader) and thereby receive both public and private goods.
  The sizes of W and S are what matters for politics. The
selectorate theory focuses on two figures, which include the
ratio of the size of W to S (W/S) and the absolute size of W.
 When W/S is small (small W and large S), there are a lot of
interchangeable members of S for the leader to form her
winning coalition. Existing coalition members will also think
What are the twice before defecting (switching allegiance to the challenger)
as it is difficult to get into the new W (W is small). As a result,
important existing members of W will be loyal to the leader in order to
maximise the chance of staying in the next coalition and gain
elements of access to the private goods. The high level of supporter loyalty
selectorate allows the leader to offer few public goods given the stability
of her coalition.
theory?  When W/S is large (large W, relatively small S), the level of
loyalty will be lower. Members of S are more willing to defect
given the higher chance of entering the newly formed W. In
order to compete for support, incumbents and competitors
will drive up the overall amount of resources spent on
coalition formation. It will also force leaders to work much
harder to stay in office.
  Besides W/S, the other relevant variable is the size of W.
Only members of W have access to private goods, which are
assumed to be shared among them. The amount available
to each member of W will be inversely related to the size of
What are the W. As W gets larger, the amount of private goods for each
member will be smaller. When the expansion continues,
important there will be a point where W becomes sufficiently large
elements of and personal private goods so small that the difference
between public and private goods no longer matter to
selectorate coalition members. They might even prefer the former, as
public goods might be more efficiently provided and less
theory? risky than private goods (which might be illegitimate).
 The theory predicts that political systems with large
coalitions (large W or large W/S) will deliver stronger
governing performance than will small coalition systems.
  Democracies, by definition, have a large pool of franchised voters
(S), and political leaders require the support of a significant share
of voters in order to get elected (W). For example, in a
presidential democracy with direct elections, S will be close to
the entire population, and W will be half the size of S. With large
W and large W/S, democracies are expected to spend more on
What are the public goods (as governments cannot afford to give private
different goods to everyone in the large W) and perform better than other
systems.
variations  Single-party and personalistic regimes usually have some form of
within electoral elements in their system, yet the actual results might
not really matter (such as rigged elections). China, for example,
selectorate has a large S, as nominally all members of the Communist Party
should have a say in leadership selection. In reality, the real
theory? power struggle should take place among the dozens of people in
the Political Bureau or even its Standing Committee. In these
cases, although a lot of people might formally have a say in the
system (S), the truly influential group is small (W). With small W
and small W/S, these types of regimes are expected to perform
the worst according to the selectorate theory.
  While some authoritarian regimes, namely monarchies and military
juntas, have a small W, their size of S also tends to be small
(members of noble families, top generals). The prediction for this
group of regimes is, however, mixed. A small W is bad, but a large
W/S is good. The weak loyalty forces leaders to improve on
governance in order to have more resources for coalition building.
What are the  It might also be interesting to note that the selectorate theory can
actually relate to the regime performance. Recall that dictators
different have greater autonomy and can choose to do good or bad things. If
variations they choose a development strategy for the benefit of the entire
society, they might enjoy greater success given the lack of
within democratic constraints. The selectorate theory might provide an
explanation for the behaviors of dictators. When they have a large
selectorate coalition to please, they are more likely to govern properly, and vice
versa if they have a small coalition.
theory?  Dictatorships are prone to extreme performances. Both economic
miracles and disasters overwhelmingly came from the dictatorship
group. This is also in line with the logic of the selectorate theory,
which holds that there are dictatorships with varied sizes of W and
S. As virtually all democracies have large coalitions, their
performances are also relatively stable from case to case.
  Building on the theory and a series of subsequent contributions,
the theory is used to generate predictions from policy outcomes
to leadership survival, corruption, and incidence of war. Although
the authors of the theory start with the idea of examining political
survival, the theory has sometimes been referred to as the theory
of everything, given its wide-ranging implications.
What are the  The value of the theory lies in the highly ambitious attempt to
strengths and explain policy outcome across all regime types (democratic or
otherwise). For good reasons, scholars in the field usually develop
weaknesses of theoretical arguments by regime type, say, an explanation for the
existence of institutions in authoritarian regimes. The selectorate
selectorate theory distilled all political dimensions into two scales and
theory? bypassed regime classifications altogether.
 A major weakness of the theory, however, is its measurement of W
and S. Given the secrecy of some regimes, it is very difficult to
accurately identify who constitutes W and S without in-depth
knowledge of each political system. The task would be even more
daunting if this had to be done for every country in the world.
How can I get
myself well
prepared for
the mid term
response
paper?
  Based on your research problem and questions, try to find the relevant
literature through both offline and online channels.
 Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question.
Include each of the key concepts or variables you are interested in, and
list any synonyms and related terms.
 Use your list of keywords to begin searching for relevant academic
How can I sources. Rely on the wide range of useful databases to search for
academic journals, articles, and books (e.g. HKU library, Google
search for Scholar, JSTOR, Wiley Online Library, EBSCO, and Project Muse, etc.).
relevant You can also make use of the boolean operators to help narrow down
your search (e.g. AND, OR, and NOT, etc.)
materials for  Read the abstract quickly to find out whether an article is relevant to
your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check
my response the bibliography to find other relevant sources.
paper?  In order to identify the most important publications on your topic, take
note of recurring citations. If the same authors or materials keep
appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.
 You should also do a quick examination of the introductory and
concluding paragraphs of the paper as these sections always provide
some information on the aims and outcomes of the research, as well as
recommendations for future studies.
 1. What question or problem is the author addressing?
2. What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
3. What are the key theories, models and methods?
How can I 4. Does the research make use of the established frameworks or
take an entirely innovative approach?
evaluate and 5. What are the results and conclusions of the study?
select 6. How does the publication relate to other literature in the field?
academic 7. Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
sources? 8. How does the publication contribute to your understanding and
analysis of the topic?
9. What are its key insights and arguments?
10. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
  Trends and patterns (in terms of academic theory,
research method, or research results): Do certain
How can I approaches become more or less popular over time?
 Themes and issues: What kinds of questions or
identify concepts recur across the diverse set of literature?
themes,  Debates, conflicts, and contradictions: Where do the
debates, and wide range of sources disagree?
gaps from the  Pivotal publications: Are there any influential theories
literature? or studies that changed the direction of the field?
 Gaps: What is missing from the literature? Are there
weaknesses that need to be better addressed?
Putting
Theories into
Practices
Case Study (1):
The Global
Outbreak of
COVID-19
 1. It would immediately predict the national self-help and “us first”
mentality that characterises the global management of COVID-19 and
its consequences. Travel and entry bans, international scapegoating,
great power competition, and pharmaceutical protectionism are
becoming ubiquitous.
2. The outbreak was followed by immediate violation of many existing
regulations of the European Union, such as competition law, fiscal
How would the discipline, and freedom of movement. As countries closed their
borders, European Union capitals went into full nationalist gear.
realists Without any European Union-consultation process, many European
Union countries immediately closed their borders and decreed export
perceive the bans.
global 3. The rapid emergence of “mask diplomacy” of China is a noteworthy
public relations coup. Beijing wants to be recognised globally as a
outbreak of responsible provider of public health goods in the absence of
leadership of the United States.
COVID-19? 4. Allegedly bowing to pressure from Beijing, the World Health
Organisation becomes highly politicised and does not recognise Taiwan
as a diplomatically independent and sovereign nation state and refuses
to include the very successful pandemic management strategies of
Taipei in its reports on global research and development efforts.
Meanwhile, it demonstrates how domestic ideology shapes foreign
policy decisions in China and hinders international cooperation.
 1. The COVID-19 outbreak has galvanised unparalleled cooperative
research in which scientists have bypassed standard protocols and
competitive secrecy to engage in shared efforts. But the United States
stopped funding of a critical coronavirus-related training programme
for Chinese and other scientists even before the outbreak. National
priorities have overridden collective action.
2. When the fates of states are bound together, they must cooperate to
How would the stem pandemics that flow seamlessly and impose high costs on all
societies. They must share knowledge and material resources to
liberalists counter a scourge that harms them all. But they do not cooperate
consistently. The United States has sought to corner scarce medical
perceive the supplies, European states have failed to coordinate policy, and China
and the United States are squabbling over responsibility.
global 3. Many international institutions like the G7 came up with an anodyne
outbreak of statement seeking to foster research cooperation and do “whatever is
necessary” to counter the economic fallout of the crisis even as they
COVID-19? disagreed on whether China was to blame for the onset of the crisis.
The World Health Organisation has also been dogged by controversy
for announcing the onset of the pandemic late and for apparently
deferring to China in doing so.
4. Many developed democratic states in Europe and North America have
been engaging in recurring tugs of war over the sharing of counter-
pandemic resources such as protective equipment and ventilators and
have done relatively little to take collective action.
 1. States fail to cooperate despite the urgency of the COVID-19 crisis
because they are weighed down by the unquestioned notion that, even
under the onslaught of a pandemic, self-help must come first, and the
exercise of power must shape action. The lack of collective action in the
face of the pandemic not as an inevitable product of the material reality
of the world as it actually is, but as arising from a realist thought
structure held by many states.
How would the 2. Some states take in infected patients from other states to their hospitals
due to norms of empathy and compassion and the positive effect such an
constructivists example might have on other states.

perceive the 3. On needs to be cautious of the impact of misinformation and information

warfare on which ideas and identities become dominant. Many malign
global actors may seek to produce bellicose beliefs and identities by promoting
polarising ideas, or fake news which further provokes anger and fear, or
outbreak of 4.
reframes truthful news in ways that promote conflict and social tensions.
Almost all countries of the world had to make certain decisions and
COVID-19? measures during the COVID-19 crisis. For example, governments
implemented more interventionist policies. Governments whose foreign
and domestic policies are more disciplined and tighter are not forced on
this issue, while governments with flexible structures are delayed in the
measures. This seriously affected the coronavirus cases and deaths. In a
concrete way, one can interpret the high number of cases, the rate of
increase and the high number of deaths in some European countries,
especially in Italy and Spain.
  According to realism, due to the systemic trust deficit in international
affairs, especially in times of critical crises, states will turn to self-help and
zero-sum calculations rather than to cooperative collective action. It is
evident that precisely such behaviour dominates the global management
of the ongoing COVID-19 crisis. To be sure, cooperation does occur, but
only when it does not clash with national interest.
 Realism would expect further restrictions on international exchange in
What are the order to minimise the threat and at least a temporary but nonetheless
significant scale-down of globalisation, as it were. The economic effects
implications of the crisis are likely to be severe and unpredictable, and likely to include
recession, flight of capital, widespread impoverishment, fall in agricultural
brought by the output, and increased deaths from other diseases.
global  The COVID-19 crisis also points to what global action on many other
critical issues would look like in the future. They will in all probability not
outbreak of induce intense global cooperation to manage common challenges, but
instead spur nationalism, zero-sum competition and the application of
COVID-19? power to secure the objectives of individual nations.
 On the positive side, realism also tells us that states try to imitate the
successful activities of their peers. Governments may look jealously upon
one another, but they will also adopt those measures used by others that
are seen to be working. One can place hope in the ability of Europeans
and Americans to emulate successful measures taken by states like New
Zealand, South Korea and Taiwan to contain the spread of COVID-19.
Case Study (2):
The Rapid Rise
of China
 1. China has the largest military build-up in the world via a huge
expansion of military spending and technological advancement as
an attempt to change the international system and obtain global
hegemony.
2. China has increasingly used its economic power to build
How would the partnerships globally, dominating Western investments,
realists especially in South America and Africa.
3. Xi Jinping has publicly and clearly declared the China Dream to
perceive the the rest of the world, which results in the great rejuvenation of
rapid rise of the Chinese nation.
4. The United States has initiated a pivot or rebalance towards the
China? Asia-Pacific region via the increasing military presence in the
region in view of the rise of China.
5. By strengthening alliance with Japan and continuing to sell
missiles to Taiwan, the United States deters China from using
force to achieve its strategic aims in the region.
 1. The rise of China can be seen as an integration into a peaceful
world system through economic and diplomatic engagement
and a web of normative obligations when she joined a wide
range of international and regional organisations, and
committed to the rules and norms of these organisations.
2. The trade interaction of china with the rest of the world
How would the accounts for half of its Gross Domestic Product. This shows an
intertwined economic relationship between the national and
liberalists global economy. Conflict would undermine this economic
relationship and result in universal losses and repercussions.
perceive the 3. Chinese leaders have tried to make the government more
rapid rise of transparent by allowing press freedom and becoming more
open to public opinion, which shows that the government is
China? well integrated in the international community. She is very
eager to seek common ground on a wide range of issues of
common interests in pursuit of win-win progress.
4. As China develops further in the years ahead, the pressure to
reform her illiberal systems will continue to grow. While China
has thus far remained resistant to political change, the
democratisation of China is critical in the long run.
 1. Many Chinese officials argue that the China threat is an unfairly
prejudiced conception of her interests, based not only on an
inaccurate representation of her material capabilities but a
prejudiced idea of its interests and intentions.
2. When the speedy progress of China is seen to come at the
expense of America, perceptions of the China threat are
How would the heightened. Nonetheless, when America and China are seen as
having a joint interest in an issue, the relationship is
constructivists subsequently perceived as more cooperative.
perceive the 3. The normative structures guiding Chinese foreign policy have
shifted from ones stressing protection of Chinese sovereignty
rapid rise of from incursion to one stressing the image of China as a
China? responsible great leader in international politics.
4. Contemporary Chinese foreign policy has countered its
negative reputation through both rhetorical and substantial
commitments to building a cooperative and responsible image
in the international society. Her participation in international
affairs dispel notions of the China threat, replacing it with a
China opportunity theory and bolstering her image.
Demonstrating
High-Order
Thinking in
Overall
Assessment
 Fundamentality
Generalisability
Falsifiability
Definitional Clarity
Recall Some Predictive Ability
Benchmarks Prerequisites
for Thinking
Extent of Influence
Causal Relationship
Level of Priority
Contextual Development
 REALISM LIBERALISM CONSTRUCTIVISM
Ignores change and is too Too idealist and does Focuses less on why discourses
status quo oriented, not address the rise and fall as the changes like
which takes constructed complex and how norms are formed, how
realities as face values multifaceted realities identities are shaped, and how
and for granted of the actual world interests are defined as they do
What are some Gives much importance Not all states will be Downplays the fact that states
to military power and willing to change, so are uncertain and have difficulties
major of the ignores other prevailing there will always be in obtaining trustworthy
and influential forces fear of other states information from other states
criticisms Considers states as the Many prominent No explicit and clear definition for
only actor and does not institutions exert cooperation in all stages and from
towards the recognise other equally minimal influence on all possible motivations as if the
important actors the state behaviours term can be freely interpreted
three schools States are not only in Most international Assumes that states genuinely
of thoughts in conflict, but they also
share common interests
institutions appear in
the low rather than
attempt to express and
understand each other when the
and observe mutual rules high politics arena world is largely deceptive
international Disregards many of the Liberals tend to turn International norms exist in the
relations? ethical and moral
principles involved in
foreign policy into a
moral crusade and
world, but they are routinely
disregarded if that is in the
international relations arouse attention interest of powerful states
  Both liberalism and realism reconcile when applied to the
issue of curbing global infectious diseases, under the
conditions that the global pandemic is fatal and has been
developed to a certain level of severity where the lives of
the masses are at risk. This is because the fatal power of a
fatal global pandemic renders curbing it a prerequisite of
state survival.
Case Study (1):  Public health is always vital to military strength as human
Eradication of resources are essential in expanding military capabilities,
this makes the survival of states depends on public health
Smallpox very much. As a result, fatal infectious disease always
threatens state survival when developed to a certain level
of severity. States then are forced to turn to international
cooperation, either because they cannot fight the virus
alone, or because it will be more costly to do so. Again,
states are rational who utilise cost-benefit analysis. This
follows the realist logic, as curbing fatal global pandemic
serves as a means to seek state survival here.
  Nonetheless, there are still limitations for realism in applying on
cyberspace. It is pretty unclear on how to measure military
capabilities of cyberspace, hence, hinder the deterrence to other
states. Unlike armaments which could show to glorify and
showcase the power of one through parade and military exercise,
the technological level of a state is difficult to be detected, it
Case Study (2): would make some states being overconfident and underestimate
the others. This would reduce the deterrence effect under realism
Expansion of since a state would not fear the others, raising the frequency of
cyber attack today, producing more conflicts and tension between
Cyberspace states. Different from what realism predicted, stability would
remain difficult in cyberspace. Still, realism, in a board sense,
and Cyberwar highlighted the general situation of the cyberspace in terms of
international relations, which could be considered as useful.
 Not every assumption could be applied due to the fast-changing
society that new elements could be added into different issues.
Regardless of which, both paradigms explore the issue in a wider
angle, promoting the in-depth understanding of cyberspace.
  From the perspective of realism, the sole motivation of the nuclear
ambition of North Korea is to maintain its survival against the
continuous nuclear threat from the United States by developing
stronger military power such as missiles and nuclear weapons.
However, despite the external threats from the United States,
realism fails to identify a more vital role played by the internal
ideology within North Korea, which can further explain why the
survival is meaningful for North Korea.
Case Study (3):  While realism emphasises the struggle of North Korea for
Proliferation of maintaining survival against the external threats from the United
States, constructivism pays more attention to the deep influences of
Nuclear the Juche ideology and the Songun policy on the identities, pursuits
and behaviours of North Korea. However, the two schools of thoughts
Weapons of need to be combined to sufficiently reveal an entire picture of the
nuclear issue of North Korea. Under the construction of the Juche
North Korea ideology, North Korea has established the identity characterised by
the national independence and the anti-American nationalism. Facing
the external nuclear threats from the United States, the state
preference, referring to the national independence of North Korea
which includes its survival, has been threatened. Due to the Songun
policy, North Korea determines to maintain its survival and
independence by developing stronger military capabilities, in which
developing nuclear weapons is one of the most powerful means.
  After discussing the liberal and constructivist approaches towards
the issue that whether China will quit the Paris agreement. Indeed,
Case Study (4): there is some overlap between liberalism and constructivism. They
China both support the utilisation of international institutions to
communicate and solve the transnational problem. However, the
Involvement in constructivists will more focus on the interaction and the flow of
the ideas and considered that social norms can change the
the Paris preference and foreign policy of the states. While the liberalism
believes that outcomes as the explanations of the intentions of
Agreement the state and they are more adhere to international law and
believed international cooperation can share a mutual interest.
  Analysing costs and benefits, European Union countries adopted
restrictive policies on refugees to protect their own national
interests so as to minimise security threats and ensure survival in
the long term. Apart from strong suppression to refugees in
Hungary, separation of refugee families in Croatia, measure of only
accepting Christian refugees in Slovakia, and Germany who had
been opening its door, started to limit asylums.
 At the surface of the crisis, humanitarianism values and norms
Case Study (5): continued in welcoming and accommodating the refugees for their
integration; however, inside the crisis, there was restriction of
Refugee Crisis asylums. For example, while Germany promised refugees the
prompt arrangement of asylums, most refugees were granted
in European temporary subsidiary protection only, which excluded family
reunification. Also, Germany restricted rights of refugee to work
Countries and receive education by arranging them to live in distant and
remote areas. Families were also separated by deportation. These
limitations in policies are adopted to deter refugees from going to
Germany for asylums due to realist concerns of interest and
security. From the changing attitude and decisions of Germany, it
can be seen that when humanitarian values and state security are
in conflict, the latter is tended to be prioritised. Human rights may
be the main focus of states only when it can be used to achieve the
benefits and interests of the states.
  Application of such theory into investigating the issue also allow us to
understand the weaknesses of each theory. Realism, which has a
tendency to treat politics both within and between states as involving
unending competition for state gains, cannot explain why Iraq did not
form alliances to counter United States pressure if it did not possess
sufficient defensive military postures for deterrence.

Case Study (6):  Liberalism, or more specifically Kantian or Wilsonian Liberalism, on the
other hand, is grounded on the assumption democracies are
Invasion of Iraq fundamentally better where states should aspire to. However, Oskanian
is correct in pointing out that this assumption was made because the
by the United post-Cold War world was dominated by liberal states which had the
credibility and power to project this idea. Whether or not the Bush
States doctrine is practically correct in the context of Middle East politics is
completely unknown, and the chronology of events up till this point
with the partially unsuccessful implementation of democracy in Iraq
has served to illustrate the detriments of the decision by the Bush
administration to invade Iraq.
 These theories therefore allow for further understanding regarding
transnational issues with far-reaching implications.