ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

BACHELOR OF ELECTRICAL & BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE NAME: PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

MODULE CODE: EEU O7403

NAME: GILDEN GILBERT MAGANDE

REG NO: 19030613009

 RELAYS AND RELAY CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION TO RELAYS

A relay is an electromagnetic switch that is used to turn on and turn off a

circuit by a low power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal.

Relays are the switches which aim at closing and opening the circuits
electronically as well as electromechanically. It controls the opening and
closing of the circuit contacts of an electronic circuit.
RELAY DESIGN

There are four main parts in a relay. These are

Electromagnet

Movable Armature

Switch point contacts

Spring
RELAY DESIGN

• The above relay design is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded
by an iron core. A path of very low reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided
for the movable armature and also the switch point contacts.  

• The movable armature is connected to the yoke which is mechanically connected

to the switch point contacts. These parts are safely held with the help of a spring.

• The spring is used so as to produce an air gap in the circuit when the relay
becomes de-energized.
WORKING MECHANISM OF A RELAY
The working mechanism of a relay can be clearly understood by looking at the inner design
of a relay and their functions.

The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is surrounded by a
control coil. As shown, the power source is given to the electromagnet through a control
switch and through contacts to the load. When current starts flowing through the control
coil, the electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field. Thus, the
upper contact arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm and thus closes the contacts
causing a short circuit for the power to the load. On the other hand, if the relay was already
de-energized when the contacts were closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an
open circuit.
WORKING MECHANISM OF A RELAY CONT…….

• As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force
back to its initial position. This force will be almost equal to half the strength of
the magnetic force. This force is mainly provided by two factors. They are the
spring and also gravity.

• Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage application
and the other is high voltage. For low voltage applications, more preference will
be given to reduce the noise of the whole circuit. For high voltage applications,
they are mainly designed to reduce a phenomenon called arcing.
TYPES OF RELAYS

In addition to the electromechanical and electromagnetic relay, there is a variety of

relays with different working principles; principles of operation and polarity.
 Electrothermal relay
 Electromechanical relay
 Solid state relay
 Hybrid relay
RELAY TYPES BASED ON POLARITY

 Polarized relays
 Non- polarized relays
These relays are identical to electromechanical relays except for the presence of
electromagnet and a permanent magnet. With this relay, the armature movement is
based on the input polarity applied to the coal and is commonly applicable in tele
graphical purposes
BASICS FOR ALL RELAYS

• The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 – pin relay shown
below. There are two colors shown. The green color represents the control circuit
and the red color represents the load circuit. A small control coil is connected
onto the control circuit. A switch is connected to the load. This switch is
controlled by the coil in the control circuit. Now let us take the different steps that
occur in a relay
BASICS FOR ALL RELAYS

Energized Relay (ON)

As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1
and 3 causes a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing
of the pins 2 and 4. Thus the switch plays an important role in the relay working. As
it is a part of the load circuit, it is used to control an electrical circuit that is
connected to it. Thus, when the electrical relay in energized the current flow will be
through the pins 2 and 4.
BASICS FOR ALL RELAYS

• De – Energized Relay (OFF)

• As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the relay switch opens and thus the
open circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay becomes de-
energized and thus in off position.

• In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet activates, causing a magnetic
field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2 and 4 causing a closed circuit. When
there is no voltage on pin 1, there will be no electromagnetic force and thus no magnetic field.
Thus, the switches remain open.
POLE AND THROW

• Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A relay is
said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown in mainly
three ways. They are

 Normally Open Contact (NO) – NO contact is also called a make contact. It closes the
circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the relay is inactive.

 Normally Closed Contact (NC) – NC contact is also known as break contact. When the
relay is activated, the circuit disconnects. When the relay is deactivated, the circuit
connects.
• Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts –They are used to control a NO
contact and also a NC contact with a common terminal. According to their type they are
called by the names break before make and make before break contacts
APPLICATIONS OF A RELAY

A relay circuit is used to realize logic functions. They play a very important role in
providing safety critical logic.
Relays are used to provide time delay functions. They are used to time the delay open
and delay close of contacts.
Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage signals.
Similarly, they are used to control high current circuits with the help of low current
signals.
They are also used as protective relays, it can detect overcurrent, overload,
undercurrent, and reverse current to ensure protection of electronic equipment. By this
function all the faults during transmission and reception can be detected and isolated .
SELECTION OF RELAYS

• Some factors while selecting a particular relay are

 Protection – Different protections like contact protection and coil protection must be noted. Contact
protection helps in reducing arcing in circuits using inductors.  Coil protection helps in reducing surge
voltage produced during switching.
 Switching time – Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.
 Ratings – There are current as well as voltage ratings. The current ratings vary from a few amperes to about
3000 amperes.  In case of voltage ratings, they vary from 300 Volt AC to 600 Volt AC. There are also high
voltage relays of about 15,000 Volts.
 Type of contact used – Whether it is a NC or NO or closed contact.
 Select Make before Break or Break before Make contacts wisely.
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
RELAY CIRCUITS

Relays are very easy to use, however when using them there are a few simple
precautions that can be adopted to ensure that the best performance and greatest
reliability is obtained.

Understanding some of the circuit techniques required for relays can make a marked
difference, especially when interfacing relays to other electronic circuits.
The relay circuit considerations can be split into two main areas:

The driver circuits, and

The switched circuits

RELAY CONTROL CIRCUITS

• The relay circuits used for controlling relays often use semiconductor devices.
Although the simplest relay circuits would simply involve a switch closing a
circuit, the applications of relays often require a small signal, possibly from some
form of a microcontroller circuit or other device to actuate the relay.
• When driven in this way, it is necessary to some form of semiconductor driver.
The simplest is a bipolar transistor, although FETs work equally well.
NPN COMMON EMITTER RELAY CIRCUIT

• The relay is actuated by a coil. This creates the magnetic field that is used to
actuate the relay, whether it is a red relay or an electromechanical relay. They
could mean that when the semiconductor switch is in its ON state, current will
start to flow. It will rise gradually as a result of the inductance and this will mean
that there will be a certain time before the relay actuates. However, when the
switch is suddenly opened a large back EMF will be generated. This could be
sufficiently large to damage the driver device.
NPN EMITTER FOLLOWER RELAY CIRCUIT

• Whilst the common emitter relay circuit will be the most popular, it is sometimes
useful to use a common collector or emitter follower configuration for the relay
circuit.

• This relay circuit just replaces the emitter resistor with the relay coil. Again, the
diode is incorporated into the relay circuit to prevent damage from the back EMF
induced at turn-off.

• The base resistor is placed in the circuit to limit the base current, although in
many instances this may not be required.
NPN EMITTER FOLLOWER RELAY CIRCUIT CONT……..

Like the common emitter circuit, this one too can use a PNP transistor, but with the
diode polarity and supply reversed
CONTACTORS

A contactor is an electrical device which is used for switching an electrical circuit

on or off. It is considered to be a special type of relay. However, the basic difference
between the relay and contactor is that the contactor is used in applications with
higher current carrying capacity, whereas the relay is used for lower current
applications.

There are various types of contactors, and each type has its own set of features,
capabilities, and applications. Contactors can break current over a wide range of
currents, from a few amperes to thousands of amperes, and voltages from 24 VDC
to thousands of volts. In addition, these electrical devices come in varying sizes,
from hand-held dimensions to sizes measuring a meter or yard on one side
(approximately).
COMPONENTS OF THE CONTACTOR

1. Coil or Electromagnet: This is the most crucial component of a contactor. The driving
force that is required to close the contacts is provided by the coil or electromagnet of
the contactor. The coil or electromagnet and contacts are protected by an enclosure.

2. Enclosure: Just like the enclosures used in any other application, contactors also
feature an enclosure, which provides insulation and protection from personnel touching
the contacts.

3. Contacts: This is yet another important component of this electrical device. The
current carrying task of the contactor is done by the contacts. There are different types
of contacts in a contactor namely, contact springs, auxiliary contacts, and power
contacts.
OPERATION OF A CONTACTOR

The current passing through the contactor excites the electromagnet. The excited
electromagnet produces a magnetic field, causing the contactor core to move the
armature. A normally closed (NC) contact completes the circuit between the fixed
contacts and the moving contacts. This permits the current to pass through these
contacts to the load. When current is removed, the coil is de-energized and opens
the circuit. The contacts of the contactors are known for their rapid open and close
action.
TYPES OF CONTACTOR DEVICES

Knife Blade Switch

The knife blade switch was used earlier in the late 1800’s. It was probably the first ever
contactor that was used to control (start or stop) electric motors. The switch consisted of a
metal strip, which would drop onto a contact. This switch had a lever for pulling the switch
down or pushing it up. Back then, one had to level the knife blade switch into the closed
position by standing next to it.

Magnetic Contactor
• The magnetic contactor does not require human intervention and operates
electromechanically. This is one of the most advanced designs of a contactor, which can
be operated remotely. Thus, it helps eliminate the risks involved in operating it manually
and putting operating personnel in potential danger. Only a small amount of control
current is required by the magnetic contactor to open or close the circuit. This is the most
common type of contactor used in industrial control applications.
TYPES OF CONTACTOR DEVICES CONT…………..

Manual Controller
Since the knife blade switch became potentially dangerous to use, engineers came
up with another contactor device, which offered a number of features that were
missing in the knife blade switch. This device was referred to as a manual
controller. These features included:

 Safe to operate
 Non-exposed unit, which is properly encased
 Physically smaller size
 Single break contacts replaced with double break contacts
THE LIFE EXPECTANCY OF A CONTACTOR OR CONTACT LIFE

• The life expectancy of a contactor or its “contact life” is one of the biggest concerns
of a user. It is natural that the contacts are being opened and closed more frequently,
the life of the contactor will decrease. The opening and closing of the contacts create
an electric arc, which generates additional heat. The continued production of these
arcs can damage the contact surface.

• Furthermore, the electrical arcs cause pitting and burn marks, which eventually
blacken the contacts. However, the black deposit or oxide on the contacts make
them even more capable of conducting electricity efficiently.

• Thus, the faster the contact closes, the quicker the arc extinguishes. This in turn
helps to increase the life of the contact.
CONTACTOR STANDARDS

There are two standards for contactors:

1. NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)

NEMA is the largest trade association of electrical equipment manufacturers in the
United States. NEMA encouraged manufacturers to standardize on frame sizes to
allow users to confidently specify, purchase, and install electrical components from
different manufacturers without a lot of hassle and cross-referencing. NEMA
contactors also are designed with safety factors that go beyond design ratings
(oversized), up to as much as 25%. NEMA is primarily a North American Standard.
 CONTACTOR STANDARDS CONT…………………

2. IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)

IEC is a global standard. IEC contactors are not oversized. They are smaller than
NEMA contactors and less expensive. The range of sizes offered by manufacturers is
more numerous than the ten NEMA standards. As such, they are more specific to a
given application and are specified when the operating conditions are well
understood. Whereas, NEMA may be chosen when operating conditions, such as load
are not well defined.
SELECTION AND CHECKING OF CONTACTORS

Contactors are selected based on the following:

Application-based on IEC utilization category.

Load current and voltage.
Control voltage available – For selecting coil voltage.
A contactor can be checked whether it is “open” or “closed” using an ohmmeter. If
the resistance between the input and output terminals is infinite then the contactor is
opened and if the ohmmeter reading is zero then it denoted that the contacts are
closed.
MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITS

The function of the motor control circuit is to control the AC motors. A higher
voltage is required to start the motor, where a voltage lower than the starting voltage
is required to operate. Changing the motor from a higher voltage to a lower voltage
is the main function of a motor control circuit.

There are mainly three types of motor control circuits:

 Direct on-Line Starter (DOL starter)

 Star Delta Starter

 Auto Transformer Starter

DOL STARTER

A DOL starter (also known as a direct on-line starter or across the line starter) is
a method of starting a 3-phase induction motor. In a DOL Starter, an induction motor
is connected directly across its 3-phase supply, and the DOL starter applies the full
line voltage to the motor terminals.

Despite this direct connection, no harm is done to the motor. A DOL motor starter
contains protection devices, and in some cases, condition monitoring

A direct on-line starter can only be used in circumstances when the high inrush
current of the motor does not cause an excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit. If
a high voltage drop needs to be avoided, a star delta starter should be used instead.
DOL STARTER POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Direct Online starter power diagram has fuse unit (F1), Main power contactor (K1),
overload relay (F2). Also, we can connect MCB for protection purpose in direct On-
Line motor starter.
DIRECT ONLINE STARTER CIRCUIT WIRING DIAGRAM
DIRECT ONLINE STARTER (DOL STARTER) CONTROL
DIAGRAM

• DOL starter control circuit diagram consist components like Main power

contactor, start button, stop push button and overload relay is connected in series
this circuit is called control circuit of dol motor starter. All controlling of starter
is controlled by this circuit
WORKING MECHANISM OF DOL STARTER

When start push button on the direct online motor starter is pressed, contactor coil
gets energized and it latches contactor pole due to electromagnetic action. 3 phase
supply get applied to the induction motor terminal and motor start running.
After that start push button get released and supply to contactor coil continued
through latching contact provided to the main contractor of D O L starter. 
At time of stopping the motor we need to pressed stop push button on dol
starter circuit, this disconnects supply to the coil and contactor coil get de-
energized, and it releases contactor latched pole and motor supply get disconnected
COMPONENT OF DOL STARTER

1. Contactor:
A contactor is a heavy-duty relay with the high current rating, used for power up electrical motor.
Current rating for contactor varies from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High current contactor is
made from an alloy containing silver. Arcing during the switching operation of contactor causes contact
to oxidize.
2. Over load relay (overload protection):
Most of motor winding failure occurs due to overload. Motor overload tends to the heating of motor
winding that results in the weakening of winding insulation. A minor overload does not cause a motor
failure immediately but it will eventually shorten the expected lifetime. 
To prevent this situation thermal overload relay is provided into a direct online starter circuit. 
This disconnects motor from supply and prevent further motor winding damage also insulation failure . 
COMPONENT OF DOL STARTER CONT………

3. Miniature circuit breaker (MCB):

To protect the motor from short circuit condition and avoid damage to motor
winding MCB is used in DOL circuit.

4. Push buttons:
• There are two push buttons are used in dol motor starter, one is a green color for
the start button and other is red for the stop push button. 
• Switching of power supply carried out by using electromechanical contactor
which has 3 to 4 poles.
ADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER

Direct On-Line motor starter is Cheapest motor Starter.

DOL is the simplest motor starter to design and maintain. 
100% starting torque.
D O L starter used up to 5HP motor depending upon insulation class of motor. 
DISADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER 

High starting current 

typically, 7 to 8 time rated current applied at starting

due to high current stress applied on motor winding. 

not suitable for high rating motor. 

create a voltage dip on the power system

High starting torque  

STAR DELTA STARTER

To decrease the starting current cage motors of medium and larger sizes are started at a
reduced supply voltage. The reduced supply voltage starting is applied in the Star Delta
methods. This is applicable to motors designed for delta connection in normal running
conditions.

Power Circuit of Star Delta Starter

The main circuit breaker serves as the main power supply switch that supplies electricity to
the power circuit.
The main contactor connects the reference source voltage R, Y, B to the primary terminal
of the motor U1, V1, W1.
In operation, the Main Contactor (KM3) and the Star Contactor (KM1) are closed initially,
and then after a period of time, the star contactor is opened, and then the delta contactor
(KM2) is closed. The control of the contactors is by the timer (K1T) built into the starter.
POWER CIRCUIT OF STAR DELTA STARTER

• The star contactor serves to initially short the secondary terminal of the motor U2,
V2, W2 for the start sequence during the initial run of the motor from standstill.
This provides one third of DOL current to the motor, thus reducing the high inrush
current inherent with large capacity motors at startup.
CONTROL CIRCUIT OF STAR-DELTA STARTER (OPEN
TRANSITION)
CONTROL CIRCUIT OF STAR-DELTA STARTER (OPEN
TRANSITION)

 The ON push button starts the circuit by initially energizing Star Contactor Coil (KM1)
of star circuit and Timer Coil (KT) circuit. When Star Contactor Coil (KM1) energized,
Star Main and Auxiliary contactor change its position from NO to NC.

 When Star Auxiliary Contactor (1) (which is placed on Main Contactor coil circuit)
become NO to NC it’s complete The Circuit of Main contactor Coil (KM3) so Main
Contactor Coil energized and Main Contactor’s Main and Auxiliary Contactor Change its
Position from NO to NC.

 After pushing the ON push button switch, the auxiliary contact of the main contactor coil
(2) which is connected in parallel across the ON push button will become NO to NC,
thereby providing a latch to hold the main contactor coil activated which eventually
maintains the control circuit active even after releasing the ON push button switch .
CONTROL CIRCUIT OF STAR-DELTA STARTER (OPEN
TRANSITION)

 When Star Main Contactor (KM1) close it connect Motor connects on STAR and it’s
connected in STAR until Time Delay Auxiliary contact KT (3) become NC to NO.

 Once the time delay is reached its specified Time, the timer’s auxiliary contacts (KT)
(3) in Star Coil circuit will change its position from NC to NO and at the Same Time
Auxiliary contactor (KT) in Delta Coil Circuit (4) change its Position from NO to
NC so Delta coil energized and Delta Main Contactor becomes NO To NC. Now
Motor terminal connection change from star to delta connection.

A normally close auxiliary contact from both star and delta contactors (5&6) are also
placed opposite of both star and delta contactor coils, these interlock contacts serve
as safety switches to prevent simultaneous activation of both star and delta
contactor coils, so that one cannot be activated without the other deactivated first
CONTROL CIRCUIT OF STAR-DELTA STARTER (OPEN
TRANSITION)

 The control circuit above also provides two interrupting contacts to shut down
the motor. The OFF-push button switch breaks the control circuit and the motor
when necessary. The thermal overload contact is a protective device which
automatically opens the STOP Control circuit in case when motor overload
current is detected by the thermal overload relay, this is to prevent burning of the
motor in case of excessive load beyond the rated capacity of the motor is
detected by the thermal overload relay.

 At some point during starting, it is necessary to change from a star connected

winding to a delta connected winding. Power and control circuits can be arranged
to this in one of two ways – open transition or closed transition.
OPEN AND CLOSED TRANSITION STARTING

1. Open Transition Starters

In open transition the power is disconnected from the motor while the winding are
reconfigured via external switching.

When a motor is driven by the supply, either at full speed or at part speed, there is a
rotating magnetic field in the stator. This field is rotating at line frequency. The flux
from the stator field induces a current in the rotor and this in turn results in a rotor
magnetic field.
OPEN TRANSITION STATES

1. OFF State: All Contactors are open.

2. Star State: The Main [KM3] and the Star [KM1] contactors are closed and the
delta [KM2] contactor is open. The motor is connected in star and will produce one
third of DOL torque at one third of DOL current.
3. Open State: This type of operation is called open transition switching because
there is an open state between the star state and the delta state. The Main contractor
is closed and the Delta and Star contactors are open. There is voltage on one end of
the motor windings, but the other end is open so no current can flow.
4. Delta State: The Main and the Delta contactors are closed. The Star contactor is
open. The motor is connected to full line voltage and full power and torque are
available
CLOSED TRANSITION STAR/DELTA STARTER

In closed transition the power is maintained to the motor at all time

There is a technique to reduce the magnitude of the switching transients. This
requires the use of a fourth contactor and a set of three resistors. The resistors
must be sized such that considerable current is able to flow in the motor windings
while they are in circuit.
 CLOSE TRANSITION STATES

1. OFF State. All Contactors are open

2. Star State. The Main [KM3] and the Star [KM1] contactors are closed and the delta
[KM2] contactor is open. The motor is connected in star and will produce one third
of DOL torque at one third of DOL current.

3. Star Transition State. The motor is connected in star and the resistors are connected
across the delta contactor via the aux [KM4] contactor.
CLOSE TRANSITION STATES

4. Closed Transition State. The Main [KM3] contactor is closed and the Delta
[KM2] and Star [KM1] contactors are open. Current flows through the motor
windings and the transition resistors via KM4.

5. Delta State. The Main and the Delta contactors are closed. The transition
resistors are shorted out. The Star contactor is open. The motor is connected to full
line voltage and full power and torque are available.
COMPONENTS OF STAR-DELTA STARTER

1. Contactor:
In star delta starter 3 contactors are used. Main contractor, star contactor, and delta contactor.

2. Overload relay (OLR) 

The majority of winding failure is because of overloading, Operation on unbalance supply
voltage or single phasing due to phase loss which leads to excessive heating to degradation of
winding insulation, due to this electrical motor required overload protection, to prevent
damage from over-loading the motor.
3. Timer  
The function of a timer in the star-delta starter is to switch contactor from star to delta after
attaining sufficient speed up to 90% of motor full speed. 
COMPONENTS OF STAR-DELTA STARTER

4. Fuse unit 
Fuse unit is used to protect the motor from over current or short circuit conditions.

The main purpose of the fuse is to protect the motor and is composed of an alloy
which has a low melting point.
5. MCB
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload/short
circuit. Its main function is to break the current flow after a fault is detected
COMPONENTS OF STAR-DELTA STARTER

6. Start push button (NO) 

This is normally open (NO) type push button, used to start the motor.
7. Stop push button (NC)
•  This is an NC type push button and used to stop the motor
ADVANTAGES OF STAR DELTA STARTER

Star-Delta starters have low price.

 There are no limits to the number of times they can be operated.
The starting current is reduced to approximately 1/3 of rated motor current.
Produce high torque per ampere of line current.
DISADVANTAGES OF STAR DELTA STARTER

Star delta starter can only useful to motors where the six motor terminals can be
accessed.
The supply voltage must be the same as the rated motor voltage for Delta
connection.
Due to the starting current is reduced to approximately 1/3 of the nominal current,
starting torque is also reduced to 1/3.
DIGITAL COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS

Combinational Logic Circuits

Combinational Logic Circuits are memoryless digital logic circuits whose output at any instant in time depends
only on the combination of its inputs.

• Unlike Sequential Logic Circuits whose outputs are dependent on both their present inputs and their previous
output state giving them some form of Memory. The outputs of Combinational Logic Circuits are only
determined by the logical function of their current input state, logic “0” or logic “1”, at any given instant in
time.
DIGITAL COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS

• Combinational Logic Circuits are made up from basic logic NAND, NOR or
NOT gates that are “combined” or connected together to produce more
complicated switching circuits. These logic gates are the building blocks of
combinational logic circuits. An example of a combinational circuit is a decoder,
which converts the binary code data present at its input into a number of different
output lines, one at a time producing an equivalent decimal code at its output.

• Combinational logic circuits can be very simple or very complicated and any
combinational circuit can be implemented with only NAND and NOR gates as
these are classed as “universal” gates.
SPECIFYING THE FUNCTION OF A COMBINATIONAL
LOGIC CIRCUIT

The three main ways of specifying the function of a combinational logic circuit are:

1. Boolean Algebra – This form the algebraic expression showing the operation

of the logic circuit for each input variable either True or False that results in a
logic “1” output.
2. Truth Table – A truth table defines the function of a logic gate by providing a
concise list that shows all the output states in tabular form for each possible
combination of input variable that the gate could encounter.
3. Logic Diagram – This is a graphical representation of a logic circuit that
shows the wiring and connections of each individual logic gate, represented
by a specific graphical symbol, that implements the logic circuit
BOOLEAN EXPRESSION AND LAWS

Laws of Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra uses a set of Laws and Rules to define the operation of a digital logic
circuit

As well as the logic symbols “0” and “1” being used to represent a digital input or
output, we can also use them as constants for a permanently “Open” or “Closed” circuit
or contact respectively.

A set of rules or Laws of Boolean Algebra expressions have been invented to help
reduce the number of logic gates needed to perform a particular logic operation resulting
in a list of functions or theorems known commonly as the Laws of Boolean Algebra.
TRUTH TABLES FOR THE LAWS OF BOOLEAN
TRUTH TABLES FOR THE LAWS OF BOOLEAN
LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

• The basic Laws of Boolean Algebra that relate to the Commutative Law allowing
a change in position for addition and multiplication, the Associative Law allowing
the removal of brackets for addition and multiplication, as well as the Distributive
Law allowing the factoring of an expression, are the same as in ordinary algebra.

• Each of the Boolean Laws above are given with just a single or two variables, but
the number of variables defined by a single law is not limited to this as there can
be an infinite number of variables as inputs too the expression.
LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Using the above laws, simplify the following expression:  (A + B)(A + C)

Q= (A + B).(A + C)  

  A.A + A.C + A.B + B.C  – Distributive law

  A + A.C + A.B + B.C  – Idempotent AND law (A.A = A)

  A(1 + C) + A.B + B.C  – Distributive law

  A.1 + A.B + B.C  – Identity OR law (1 + C = 1)

  A(1 + B) + B.C  – Distributive law

  A.1 + B.C  – Identity OR law (1 + B = 1)

Q= A + (B.C)  – Identity AND law (A.1 = A)

LOGIC GATES

Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the
AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates.

There are three basic types of digital logic gates, the AND Gate, the OR Gate and
the NOT Gate. Other gates are built from these basic gates.

The basic operations are described below with the aid of truth tables
THE LOGIC AND GATE
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if
all its inputs are high.  A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e.,
A.B.  Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e., AB
THE LOGIC OR GATE

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its
inputs are high.  A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.
THE NOT GATE (INVERTER)
K-MAPS

In many digital circuits and practical problems, we need to find expression with
minimum variables. We can minimize Boolean expressions of 3, 4 variables very
easily using K-map without using any Boolean algebra theorems. K-map can take
two forms Sum of Product (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS) according to the need
of problem. K-map is table like representation but it gives more information than
TRUTH TABLE. We fill grid of K-map with 0’s and 1’s then solve it by making
groups.
STEPS TO SOLVE EXPRESSION USING K-MAP

1. Select K-map according to the number of variables.

2. Identify min-terms or maxterms as given in problem.

3. For SOP put 1’s in blocks of K-map respective to the min-terms (0’s elsewhere).

4. For POS put 0’s in blocks of K-map respective to the max-terms (1’s elsewhere).

5. Make rectangular groups containing total terms in power of two like 2,4,8 ...
(except 1) and try to cover as many elements as you can in one group.

6. From the groups made in step 5 find the product terms and sum them up for SOP
form.
 SOP FORM

1. K-map of 3 variables-
• Z= ∑A,B,C(1,3,6,7)

• From red group we get product term— A’C 

• From green group we get product term— AB 
• Summing these product terms, we get- Final expression (A’C+AB) 

 
SOP FORM

1. K-map for 4 variables

• F(P,Q,R,S)=∑(0,2,5,7,8,10,13,15) 

• From red group we get product term— QS 

• From green group we get product term— Q’S’ 
• Summing these product terms, we get- Final expression (QS+Q’S’).
POS FORM

1. K-map of 3 variables-
• F(A,B,C)=π(0,3,6,7)
POS FORM

 From red group we find terms - A    B      C’ 

 Taking complement of these two - A’     B’     C 
 Now sum up them = (A’ + B’ + C) 
 From green group we find terms - B         C 
 Taking complement of these two terms - B’         C’ 
 Now sum up them = (B’+C’) 
 From brown group we find terms A’ B’ C’ 
 Taking complement of these two - A B C 
 Now sum up them = (A + B + C) 
 We will take product of these three terms: Final expression (A’ + B’ + C) (B’ + C’) (A +
B + C) 
REFERENCES

(n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2021 from allaboutcircuits:

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-8/minterm-maxterm-
solution/
(n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2021 from electronics-tutorials: https://www.electronics-
tutorials.ws/category/sequential
(2017, December 5). Retrieved April 22, 2021 from electrical-engineering-porta:
https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/star-delta-motor-starter
(2017, May 15). Retrieved April 21, 2021 from electrical4u:
https://www.electrical4u.com/direct-online-starter/
REFERENCES

(2018, December 12). Retrieved April 22, 2021 from electric portal:
https://www.electricportal.info/2018/12/direct-on-line-starter-DOL-working-principle-
control-wiring-diagram.html
(2019, July 20). Retrieved April 21, 2021 from electrical classroom:
https://www.electricalclassroom.com/sizing-of-contactor-and-overload-relay-dol-
starter/
(2020, Feb. 23). Retrieved April 24, 2021 from electric portal:
https://www.electricportal.info/2019/01/what-is-star-delta-motor-starter-principle.html
(2021, February 27). Retrieved April 22, 2021 from circuits today:
https://www.circuitstoday.com/working-of-contactors