2) Introduction

2.1) Background
For the fuel delivery system for most gasoline engines, carburetors were the
common technique used in late 1980s which then later replaced by EFI in
many sophisticated vehicles due to its inadequacy to provide better air-
fuel ratio constantly, better emission control, cold starting and many others.
But still in Nepal motorcycles and small engine vehicles have carburetors
as the main engine system. Carburetor is unable to hold the mixture of fuel
and air close to the stoichiometric thereby causing the production of more
emissions even when a catalytic converter is installed in the exhaust system.
Therefore, it has lower efficiency and high emission value thereby making it
impossible to comply with the prevailing emission legislations until some
serious modifications are made.
Carburetor engine:
Carburetor is a device that consists of a tube which allows air and fuel into the
engine through valves, mixing them together in different amounts to suit a
wide range of different driving conditions.
A throttle plate controls the flow of air. A narrow venturi tube creates a
vacuum and fuel is entered through a jet.
Fuel Atomization and Vaporization
In order to change gasoline from a liquid into a combustible form, first the
liquid fuel enters the carburetor, where it is sprayed into incoming air
and atomized i.e. reduced to mist. The resulting air-fuel mixture then moves
into the intake manifold, where the mist is changed into vapor. Vaporization
takes place only when the fuel is hot enough to boil. Since the intake
manifold pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of
gasoline drops when it enters the manifold. Heat from the intake manifold
floor combines with heat absorbed from air particles surrounding the fuel
particles to begin vaporization. It is also helped by raising the temperature of
the intake manifold, since the higher the temperature, the more complete is
the vaporization. This heated area in the intake manifold is called a hot spot.
When there is poor vaporization, too much liquid fuel reaches the cylinders.
Some of this extra fuel is given off as unburned hydrocarbons, and some
wash away oil from the cylinder wall causing engine wear. The rest is
carried past the piston rings blow by gases. Sometimes there is poor
vaporization, which may happen due to several factors as follows. (i) A too
low mixture velocity. (ii) A cold manifold or low manifold vacuum. (iii)
Cold incoming air. (iv) Insufficient volatility of fuel. (v) Poor manifold
design. (vi) Low flow capacity of carburetor
Factors affecting carburetion
a) Engine speed: In order to have high quality carburetion, the air velocity
of the air stream at the point where the fuel in injected has to
be increased. This is achieved by introducing a venture section in the
path of the air.
b) Vaporizing characteristics of the fuel: Presence of highly volatile
hydrocarbons in the fuel, suitable evaporation characteristics of the
fuel are necessary for efficient carburetion especially at high engine
speeds.
c)
The temperature of the incoming air: Higher atmospheric temperature
of the air increases the vaporization of the fuel and produces
more homogenous mixture.
d)
The design of carburetor: There are different types of carburetor based
on the design. Carburetor must be designed for quality carburetion at
various operating conditions (idling condition to maximum power
requirement.)
Working:

Simple carburetor work on the Bernoulli’s theorem principle. During the

suction stroke, air is drawn into the cylinder through venturi (also known as
choke tube). Venturi tube is designed in such a way that it offers minimum resistance
to the air flow. When air passes through the venturi the velocity of air increases
and the pressure decreases. At venturi throat the velocity of air reach maximum
and pressure reach minimum. There will be pressure difference between the float
chamber and venturi throat. This pressure difference is known as carburetor
depression. Because of this pressure difference fuel is discharge to air stream
through fuel discharge nozzle. The amount of fuel discharged depend upon the size of
the fuel discharge nozzle.

Different Running conditions that must be met by a carburetor:

a) Cold starting: When the engine is cold, fuel vaporizes less readily and
tends to condense on the walls of the intake manifold, starving the cylinders
of fuel and making the engine difficult to start; thus, a richer mixture (more
fuel to air) is required to start and run the engine until it warms up.

b) Hot starting: During hot starting, carburetion might be flooded (i.e. much fuel
into the carburetor). So, it is recommended to steadily hold the throttle full
open while continuing to crank the engine. This permits the maximum flow
of air through the engine.

c) Idling: The choke valve regulates the amount of air flow in the carburetor. The
throttle valve determines the amount of air that enters the carburetor and the
amount of fuel it drags in from the pipe to the side. These two valves can be
used to tune the idling speed of carburetor engine.

d) Part throttle acceleration: At part throttle acceleration condition,

throttle valve must restrict the airflow of the engine hence allowing the
quantity of fuel that is injected to be reduced while maintaining a constant air-
fuel ratio (AFR).

e) High speed acceleration: At high speed acceleration when the gas

pedal is pressed too deep, the throttle valve must open wide and allow
maximum air flow. So that rich air- fuel mixture can be obtained.

Drawbacks of carburetor:
f) The engine requires rich mixture of fuel at low loads but fuel becomes leaner
at low loads.
g) Vapor locking & cold starting problems.
h) Open loop fuel injection system.
i) At high altitudes, the air becomes lighter. The carburetor engine cannot
compensate for the change in air density.
2.1.1) Origin of Idea: The evolution of EFI system and better environmental pollution
control norms has pushed the carbureted engines towards obsolescence due to
their inherent design problems. This has made the existing manufactures & users
of old carbureted engine vehicle a setback. In this research work we try to
optimize the carburetor performance by using ECU, injectors & sensors with
minimum costs.

2.1.2) Attempts so far made by others to address the issues

Various attempts have been made for the modification of carburetor to throttle
body injection (TBI), port fuel injection (PFI) and gasoline direct injection
(GDI) through comparative study and analysis of design using various
experimental setup, CFD analysis GT-power simulation and so on.

2.1.2.1) “Mechanical Modifications to convert small two strokes carbureted

engine to Electronic Fuel Injection system engine to reduce emission
and fuel consumption” by kumar D. sapate, A.N.tikekar analyzed &
evaluated the difference in carburetor mode & injection mode in terms of
brake specific
fuel consumption (bsfc), hydrocarbon emission (HC), carbon monoxide (CO),
power output.
After successful mechanical modification especially, injector locations the EFI
engine had shown
Following improvements in engine performance. With the same capacity
engine,
• The power output improved by 2.8 %,
• BSFC improved by 20 %,
• HC emission reduced by 30 % &
• CO emission reduced by 20 %
2.1.2.2)
“An efficient carburetor design using electronic fuel injection for
small vehicles” by Muhammad Haris Mohsin, Asim ur Rehman et. al. studied
about the fuel efficiency of mechanical type carburetor and EFI based
carburetor. The fuel efficiency was calculated by using the equation;
Efficiency= {(Fuel with EFI-Fuel without EFI)/Fuel without EFI} * 100%
It was found out that fuel efficiency in EFI based carburetor is 12% better than
the mechanical type carburetor.
2.1.2.3)
“PFI System for Retrofitting Small 4-Stroke Gasoline Engines” by Mohd
Faisal Hushim, Ahmad Jais Alimin, Hazlina Selamat, and Mohd Taufiq
Muslim reviewed the comparative study using 1-D simulation software - GT-
Power, on electronic fuel injection (EFI) system between port-fuel
injection (PFI) and direct injection (GDI) system for retro-fitment purpose of
small 125cc 4-stroke gasoline engine. From this study, PFI system has been
selected based on its high brake power, brake torque, and brake mean
effective pressure with low brake specific fuel consumption.
 Results: PFI system is more powerful compared to GDI system which is
its produces high BP, BT, and BMEP especially at 7000 rpm onwards as
shown in the respective figures. At the same time, it consumes less fuel with
resulting low BSFC. For BP, the PFI system has shown its significant power
start from 7000 rpm onwards with over than 25% higher at 10000 rpm. For the
GDI system, the highest power output was at 8500 rpm with its BP is 8.75
kW and its starts to decrease as the engine speed increase, while PFI system
still providing power as the engine speed increase. the BT for PFI system is
higher all the time of engine speeds with the highest produced BT
approaching 11 Nm at 7500 rpm. While the highest produced BT for GDI
system is 10.66 Nm at 7000 rpm. PFI system has shown that it produced better
BT compared to the GDI system with almost 29% and 26% higher at 1000
rpm and 10000 rpm respectively. GDI system consumes more fuel almost at
all engine speeds especially at low and high rpm. GDI system consumes over
than 19% more fuel at low rpm – 1000 rpm and this value decreases as
engine speed increases to 4000 rpm before its start to increase back as
the engine speed increase and its end-up with almost 20% more at 10000 rpm.

2.1.2.4) “Effect of various manifold absolute pressures and airflow rates on

throttle body injection mixer in compressed natural gas motorcycle”
by Chang Siu Hua, Zulkefli YaaCob, Rahmat Mohsin studied the effect of
various Manifold absolute pressures (MAPs) and airflow rates (Qa) on
Throttle body Injection mixer (TBIM) in a compressed natural gas (CNG)
motorcycle through both the experimental work and Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling. It was found that both the MAPs and Qa
obtained exhibited a good agreement in the trending of graphs with the former
works.
2.1.2.5)
“An Experimental Study for Emission of Four Stroke Carbureted
and Fuel Injection Motorcycle Engine” by Adnan Katijan1, Mohd Faruq
Abdul Latif, Qamar Fairuz Zahmani, Shahid Zaman, Khairuldean Abdul
Kadir, Ibham Veza studied exhaust pollutants (emissions) of the engine,
including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and unburned
hydrocarbon (HC) were investigated at different engine speeds and loads.
Results: This study show that both systems produce different quantities of gas
emissions and that a fuel injection system much better than a carbureted
system.
At 5KN load- A comparison of the performance at speeds of 2000, 4000 and
6000 shows that, the quantity of CO emissions reduced by 86.2%, 75.6% and
26.1% respectively. Therefore, this translates to an average improvement
of 62.6% at all three set speeds. The results also show a similar trend
in HC emissions, which show an average reduction of emission by 29.75%
while CO2 emissions improved by 11.33%. A better combustion process
which utilizes a fuel injection system results in reduced emissions of HC, CO
and CO2. The fuel injection nozzles used in the new system facilitate
breaking down of the fuel into very fine particles, which easily vaporize
during the induction process. This process improves homogeneity of fuel
injection.
At 10KN load- A comparison between carburetor and fuel injection systems,
at speeds of 2000,4000 and 6000 show that, CO emissions reduced by
95.1%,
 89.79% and 42.69% respectively. Therefore, this translates to an average
improvement of 75.86% at all three sets speed. CO2 and HC emissions
improved by 30.1% and 56.42% respectively. It is clear that, at same speed the
HC, CO and CO2 increase as the load increases. This is due to more fuel is
introduced to achieve the desire engine torque and hence it leads to increase in
emission.
2.1.3) Issue left
2.1.4) Scope of the work (areas to be covered)
The project is limited to development of a basic working model of TBI system by
modifying the carburetor system using the available components.
2.1.5) Rationale: In context of Nepal, there are still lot of motorcycles and small
engine vehicles that have carburetors as the main engine system. Carburetor is
unable to hold the mixture of fuel and air close to the stoichiometric
thereby causing the production of more emissions even when a catalytic
converter is installed in the exhaust system. Therefore, it has lower efficiency and
high emission value thereby making it impossible to comply with the prevailing
emission legislations until some serious modifications are made.

2.2) Problem Statement: Carbureted vehicles like small engines or older or

specialized automobiles are facing a lot of problems as carburetor couldn’t provide
perfect air- fuel ratio consistently, wastage of fuel, higher emissions, problem of vapor
locks.
The process of optimizing traditional carburetor into EFI based carburetor
includes use of fuel injector, ARDUINO microcontroller along with required
sensors like MAP sensor and others.
2.3)
Literature Review:
2.3.1
Introduction
The basic goal of the automotive industry is to develop vehicle with high power, low specific
fuel consumption, low emission, and low maintenance and better drive comfort. With
increasing vehicle pollution, the role of the vehicles in causing air pollution has been
increasing significantly day to day. Since the engines with carburetor do not hold the air fuel
ratio close to the stoichiometric at different working conditions, catalytic converter cannot be
used in these engines. Therefore, these engines have high emission values and low efficiency.
Throttle body Fuel Injection (TBI) systems instead of fuel system with carburetor have
been used since 1980‟s. In fuel injection systems, induced air can be metered precisely and
the fuel is injected in the manifold to air amount. Fuel systems without electronic control it is
impossible to fulfill with the increasingly emissions legislation. TBI fuel injection is a type of
fuel injection system where the fuel is injected into the throttle body. The throttle body fuel
injection system, or TBI as referred to by Ford Company, works using a single injector.
The throttle looks like a carburetor without the fuel bowl, the metering jets or the float.
2.3.1.1 Definition of throttle body
A throttle body is the intake system component in fuel-injected engines that the driver
controls with the accelerator. Although the accelerator is commonly known as a “gas pedal,”
it doesn’t actually control the delivery of fuel to the engine. Instead, it actually controls the
flow of air. In fuel-injected engines, it specifically controls the angle of a butterfly valve
inside of a throttle body. In some ways, a throttle body is similar to a carburetor. This
is particularly true in vehicles that use single-point fuel injection, where the fuel injector
is built into the throttle body.
However, most throttle bodies are only responsible for controlling the flow of air,
where carburetors perform that function in addition to mixing the air and fuel before it
enters the intake manifold. A typical throttle body consists of a one- or two-piece metal
casing that has a large bore passing through the middle of it. This bore is partially or
fully blocked by a component known as a throttle plate, which pivots on its axis (i.e.
a butterfly valve.) The throttle plate is typically controlled by mechanical throttle
linkage, except in cars that are equipped with drive-by-wire technology.
Although the throttle plate is the main way that controls the flow of air through a throttle
body, these components sometimes include additional valves or paths for air to flow. One
example is a cold start fuel injector, which is a component that allows a fuel to adjust
the cold start. Throttle bodies work by providing the driver of a vehicle with a way to
control the amount of air that is flowing through the intake system at any given time.
Although the accelerator pedal is often referred to as a gas pedal, and phrases such as “step
on the gas” are ingrained in our minds, the accelerator actually controls the flow of air into
the engine
When you press on the accelerator pedal, one of two things happen. In most cases,
mechanical linkage between the pedal and the throttle body pulls on the throttle plate, which
causes it to open. One type that isn’t found as often now as it once was single-point
injection. These systems are also referred to as “throttle body injection” because there is only
one fuel injector, and it’s located inside the throttle body. This combines fuel and air
delivery into a single component, similar to the functionality of carburetors.
Single-point fuel injection is referred to by a handful of different names, including
throttle body injection (TBI), central fuel injection (CFI), EGI, and PGM-CARB. The throttle
bodies in these systems are similar to those used in other, more modern fuel injection
systems, aside from the fact that they have built-in fuel injectors.
When a throttle body goes bad, there are a few different common failure points. Although
they can fail mechanically, it’s much more common for external parts to go bad. The
specific diagnostic procedure depends on the problem that you are experiencing, since
there are a number of different components that can fail. This type of fuel injection system
consists of only two major castings - the fuel body and the throttle body. The fuel body
supplies the fuel while the throttle body has a valve that controls the flow of air.
2. Installing the Throttle Body
The throttle body regulates the air going into the valves. Universal models are the easiest for
conversions. Bolt the throttle body on and hook it up at the throttle linkage. This connected to
the accelerator pedal. An idle air controller is needed with the EFI throttle body. This goes
into a small passage that pushes extra air past the throttle plates. It opens or closes the
passage depending on how much air is needed in the manifold
3. Throttle Body Failure
One common issue with throttle bodies is referred to as “coking.” This is an issue where
rough, black residue builds up on the throttle plate or inside the bore, and it can cause
anything from a rough idle to a hard start condition. In many cases, this issue can be fixed by
simply cleaning the residue from the throttle plate and bore, although precautions may be
necessary. Some throttle bodies are coated with materials that can be stripped away by
harsh solvents (i.e. carburetor cleaner), so cleaning a throttle body can actually damage it if
you aren’t careful.

Figure 2: Coking can lead to idling problem and throttle sticking

2.3.1.4 Throttle Valve
All gasoline engines have a throttle valve to control the volume of intake air. The amount of
fuel and air that goes into the combustion chamber regulates the engine speed and, therefore,
engine power. The throttle valve is linked to the accelerator (gas pedal). The throttle valve is
a butterfly valve that usually consists of a disc mounted on a spindle. The disc is roughly
circular, and it has the same diameter as the main air passage in the throat or "venturi". In a
carburetor, the throttle valve is usually located at the bottom of the carburetor, between the jet
nozzle and the intake manifold. The throttle spindle is connected to the accelerator in such a
manner that
when the pedal is depressed, the valve opens. When the pedal is released, the valve closes.
Fuel injected engines use throttle valves to regulate engine power, even though the
fuel is also regulated through the injectors.
There are advantages and disadvantages in using the throttle body fuel injection system with
carburetor system [6].
5. TBI Fuel Injection Advantages
• It is less expensive than carburetor systems.
• It is easier to clean, maintain and service because there are fewer parts.
• It is cheaper to manufacture than a carburetor system and simpler to diagnose.
• It greatly improves the fuel metering compared to a carburetor.
6. TBI Fuel Injection Disadvantages
• The possibility of condensation is much higher since the fuel travels
longer from the throttle body to the combustion chamber.
• Since the system needs to be mounted on top of the combustion chamber,
you're prevented from modifying the manifold design to improve
your car's performance.
2.3.2 Fuel system
2.3.2.1 Fuel delivery system
The fuel delivery system consists of the fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filters, fuel feed hose, fuel
delivery pipe (including fuel injectors) and fuel pressure regulator. There is no fuel return
hose. The fuel in the fuel tank is pumped up by the fuel pump and pressurized fuel flows
into the injector installed in the fuel delivery pipe. Fuel pressure is regulated by the
fuel pressure regulator. As the fuel pressure applied to the fuel injector (the fuel pressure in
the fuel delivery pipe) is always kept at absolute fuel pressure of 300 kPa. The fuel relieved
by the fuel pressure regulator flows back to the fuel tank.
An internal combustion engine, the fuel injection systems is that which delivers fuel or a fuel
air mixture to the cylinders by means of a pressure from a pump. Fuel injection means
metering fuel into an internal combustion engine. Fuel injection is also now used in gasoline
engines in place of a carburetor. In gasoline engines, the fuel is first mixed with air, and
the resulting mixture is delivered to the cylinders.
Metering of the fuel charge may be performed mechanically or electronically. In a
diesel engine, the fuel injected directly into the combustion chamber (direct injection)
or into a smaller connected auxiliary chamber (indirect injection). In the spark-ignition
engine, the fuel is injected into the before it enters the combustion chamber by spraying the
fuel into the air stream passing through the throttle body (Throttle Body Injection) or
into the air flowing through the port to the intake valve. On automotive spark ignition
engines, the carburetor has largely been replaced by a gasoline fuel injection system with
either mechanical or electronic control of fuel metering.
2. Objectives of Fuel Injection
The functional objectives for fuel injection systems can share All share the central task
of supplying fuel to the combustion process, but it is a design decision how a particular
system will be optimized. There are several competing objectives such as: increase
Power output, increase Fuel efficiency, reduced Emissions, increase engine
performance, Ability to accommodate alternative fuels, smooth operation, reduced
Initial cost and reduced Maintenance.

3. Benefits of Fuel Injection

The two fundamental improvements are:
1. Reduced response time to rapidly changing inputs, e.g., rapid throttle movements.
2. Deliver an accurate and equal mass of fuel to each cylinder of the engine, dramatically
improving the cylinder-to-cylinder distribution of the engine.

A. Port Fuel injection system:

In the port injection arrangement, the injector is placed on the side of the
intake manifold. The injector sprays petrol into the air inside the intake manifold.
The petrol mixes with the air completely.
This mixture of petrol and air then passes through the intake valve and enters into the
cylinders. Port fuel injection (PFI), systems use one injector at each cylinder. They are
mounted in the intake manifold near the cylinder head where they can inject a fine,
atomized fuel, mist as closest as possible to the intake valve. Since each cylinder has
its own injector, fuel distribution is exactly equal. With little or no fuel to wet the
manifold
walls, there is no need for manifold heat or an early fuel evaporation system.
Fuel doesn’t collect in puddles at the base of the manifold. This means that
the intake manifold passages can be turned or designed for better low speed-power
availability. The port type systems provide a more accurate and more efficient
delivery of fuel.

B. Central-port fuel injection system (CPFIS):

General Motors developed an “in-between” technique called central port fuel injection
called CPFI. It uses tubes from a central injector to spray fuel at each intake port
rather than the central throttle body.
2.3.2.4 Throttle Body Injection
The throttle body injection is the most basic type of fuel injection that can be found on
vehicles today. The throttle body injection was the improvement on the carburetor and
while it may look different, it is similar in design to the carburetor. The fuel injectors
are located in a central housing and the fuel travels with the air throughout the intake
manifold on its way to the cylinders. This type of fuel injection is like a computerized
carburetor so it will benefit from the precise delivery of the fuel, but there are
disadvantages as all of the fuel may not enter the cylinder.

A. Port Fuel Injection

Port fuel or multi point injection is an improvement to the throttle body injection as
injectors are placed directly above each intake valve resulting in a more precise fuel
delivery. The air and fuel meet at a later stage than the throttle body so condensation
of the fuel is reduced. This maybe a complicated compared to the throttle body it
offers more power with better fuel economy as more of the fuel can be utilized on
each power stroke.
B. Direct Injection
As good as port fuel may sound, engineers have improved on this type of fuel
injection
and this improvement is known as direct fuel injection or gasoline direct
injection (GDI). This type of fuel delivery operates similar to the diesel cycle
as the fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder and mixes with the air. With the use
of common rail technology and advanced injectors the fuel is sprayed at a much
higher pressure causing the fuel to enter the cylinder as a very fine mist which is ideal
for a better ignition of the fuel. This method decreases the surface area around the
cylinder where the fuel can come in contact with, before it ignites so a higher
percentage (possibly all) of the fuel will be utilized for combustion resulting in more
power per stroke.
A direct injected engine can be identified by a clicking sound if you listen to the
engine idle with the bonnet open but this clicking sound is not heard from the
interior of the car. GDI results in greater fuel economy and power as less fuel may be
wasted. Direct
Injection maximizes the benefits of forced injection as the fuel will not mix with the
heated compressed air before combustion making the direct injection the most
efficient
 of the fuel injection types. Carburetor vs fuel injection is debated as fuel
delivery systems.

5. Types of Fuel Injection

Throttle Body injection systems locate the injector(s) within the air intake cavity, or
"throttle body". Multi-point systems use one injector per cylinder, and usually locate
the injectors at the mouth of the intake port. The fuel injector is an electromechanical
device that sprays and atomizes the fuel.
The fuel injector is nothing more than a solenoid through which gasoline is metered.
When electric current is applied to the injector coil, a magnetic field is created, which
causes the armature to move upward. This action pulls a spring-loaded ball or "pintle
valve" off its seat. Then, fuel under pressure can flow out of the injector nozzle. The
shape of the pintle valve causes the fuel to be sprayed in a cone-shaped pattern. When
the injector is de-energized, the spring pushes the ball onto its seat, stopping the flow
of fuel.

A. Mechanical Fuel Injection

Mechanical fuel injection is the oldest of the fuel injection systems. It uses a throttle
linkage and a governor. It is now used mainly on diesel engines. Hydraulic
fuel injection is used by some of the imports. Hydraulic pressure is applied to
a fuel distributor as a switching device to route fuel to a specific injector. The fuel
from the tank is carried under pressure to the fuel injector(s) by an electric fuel pump,
which is located in or near the fuel tank. All excess is returned to the fuel tank.

B. Electronic Fuel Injection

The principle of electronic fuel injection is very simple. Injectors are opened not by
the
pressure of the fuel in the delivery lines, but by solenoids operated by an electronic
control unit. Since the fuel has no resistance to overcome, other than
insignificant friction losses, the pump pressure can be set at very low values,
consistent with the limits of obtaining full atomization with the type of injectors used.
The amount of fuel to be injected is determined by the control unit on the basis
of information fed into it about the engine's operating conditions. This information
will include manifold pressure, accelerator enrichment, cold-start requirements,
idling conditions, outside temperature and barometric pressure. The systems
work with constant pressure and with "variable timed" or "continuous flow"
injection. Compared with mechanical injection systems, the electronic fuel injection
has an impressive set of
advantages. It has fewer moving parts, no need for ultra- precise machining standards,
quieter operation, less power loss, a low electrical requirement, no need for
special pump drives, no critical fuel filtration requirements, no surges or pulsations in
the fuel line and finally, the clincher for many car makers, lower cost.
2.3.3) Types of Sensors used in ECU:

A. Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor:

Manifold Absolute pressure sensor (MAP) is used to find out the amount of air flow
into the engine. It helps ECM to determine fuel quantity to be injected. It measures the
absolute pressure (above vacuum) of intake manifold in all conditions during engine
operation. When air enters the intake manifold the MAP sensor senses the air pressure
and gives the varying voltage signal.

B. Intake Air Temperature (IAT) Sensor:

The IAT sensor is positioned in the air intake passage to read the temperature of air
entering the engine. This helps ECM to determine the air density and quantity of fuel
needed. It provides a varying voltage signal as per its resistance. The resistance of the
sensor decreases with the increase in temperature of air. The ECM supplies 5V
reference voltage to IAT sensor. As the temperature rises, the voltage goes down.

C. Mass Air Flow (MAF) Sensor:

In some vehicles, a MAF sensor is used in place of MAP and IAT sensor to determine
the amount and density of air flow into engine. MAF sensor uses a conductor which is
maintained at a defined temperature by ECM. The air entering the engine passes this
conductor absorbing the heat from the conductor. As higher amount of air passes the
conductor, it absorbs higher amount of heat requiring more current to maintain
the temperature of conductor. The amount of current flow is converted into voltage
signal indicating the amount of air to ECM.

D. Crankshaft Position (CKP) Sensor:

A crankshaft position sensor helps ECM to determine the engine speed and position of
crankshaft. This information is used by engine management system to control the fuel
injection or ignition timing and other engine parameters. Without this sensor the
engine will not start. Crankshaft position sensor is given as a sine wave with a
missing tooth which indicates the position of crankshaft.

E. Camshaft Position (CMP) Sensor:

A camshaft position sensor is used to identify position of the piston. It helps
to synchronize the ignition and injection timing due to the piston position. It signals
the ECM when the cylinder comes at the Top Dead Centre (TDC) at the end
of
compression.

F. Oxygen (O2) Sensor:

Oxygen sensor helps to determine whether the air-fuel ratio of a combustion engine is
rich or lean. Since oxygen sensors are located in the exhaust stream, they do not
directly measure the air or fuel entering the engine, but when the information from the
oxygen sensor is coupled with the information from other sources, it can be used to
directly determine the air-fuel ratio.
 The front oxygen sensor measures the density of oxygen in exhaust gases and gives
this information to ECM. This helps ECM to maintain stoichiometric ratio of
air-fuel mixture.
The rear oxygen sensor is located after catalytic converter. It also sends signals
to ECM. The ECM compares both the signals to determine that the catalytic
converter is operating properly.
The O2 sensor generates voltage signal by comparing the atmospheric oxygen
and oxygen content in exhaust. When the mixture is ideal i.e., 14.7:1 the voltage
by O2 sensor is approximately 450 mV. The ECM continuously reads this signal and
adjusts the air-fuel ratio. In normal engine operation the O2 sensor signals keeps on
fluctuating between 100 mV and 900 mV.

G. Throttle Position Sensor:

The primary job of the throttle position sensor is to monitor the position of the throttle
and send the electronic signal to open the throttle body as the gas pedal is depressed.
When the throttle is lift off or press down, it sends an electric signal to the vehicles
ECM and then transmits that signal to the fuel system.

H. Engine Temperature Sensor:

Engine temperature sensor works with the vehicles ECU, continually monitoring the
coolant temperature to make sure the engine is running at the optimum temperature.
To get an accurate reading of the current engine temperature, the ECU sends a
regulated voltage to the ECT sensor. The resistance of the sensor varies with
temperature, this is how the ECU can monitor the temperature changes. With the
increase in coolant temperature, the voltage signal from ECT sensor goes down.

2.3.4) Exhaust gas analysis

Engine exhaust gas comprises of nitrogen, water vapor and carbon dioxide and
pollutants. Pollutants includes unburnt hydrocarbons (HC emissions), carbon
monoxides and pollutants. Exhaust gas chemical composition may change rapidly
with engine operating conditions. Ranges of temperature increases from ambient level
at the intake manifold to 700 C in the engine exhaust manifold. Concentration
of these components can be estimated from the chemical formula of ideal
combustion by applying ratio between the intake air and the fuel and average
composition of the fuel burned
Exhaust gas is represented by its volume concentration or its mass emission
a. Expressed either in % or vol% or ppm corresponding to its concentration
b. Hydrocarbon concentration is generally represented by its carbon
equivalent concentration in ppmC.
Following figure shows the concentration of exhaust gas emission at different air fuel
ratio in a SI engine.

Fig: Emission concentration of SI engine at different air-fuel ratio

From this figure, we can conclude that O2 emission is high at lean mixture as the air
has abundance of oxygen at lean mixture whereas CO, HC, H2, emission is high at
rich mixture as there is lack of oxygen and mixture has enough fuel contents. At
correct air fuel mixture, CO2 and water vapor are mainly obtained as
byproduct of fuel combustion.
 Fig: Equivalence ratio and relative emission
(Air–fuel equivalence ratio, λ (lambda), is the ratio of actual AFR to stoichiometry for
a given mixture. λ = 1.0 is at stoichiometry, rich mixtures λ < 1.0, and lean mixtures λ
> 1.0.)

From this figure, we can conclude that NOx emission is high and HC and CO emission
is less at lean mixture as the air has abundance of oxygen at lean mixture whereas CO,
HC, H2, emission is high and NOx emission is low or absent at rich mixture as there is
lack of oxygen and mixture has enough fuel contents. At correct air fuel mixture, CO2
and water vapor are mainly obtained as byproduct of fuel combustion.

For S.I. Engine with Carburetor:

1. Evaporative Emissions Account for approximately 20%
2. Crankcase Emissions Account for Approximately 20%
3. Exhaust Emissions Account for Balance 60%
 Reasons for emissions of pollutants from exhaust can be pointed as:
1. Unburned HC Formation
i) Direct result of incomplete combustion
ii) Rises rapidly as the mixture becomes richer than stoichiometric mixture
Incomplete combustion occurs due to following reasons:
a) Air – fuel ratio
b) Improper mixing
c) Flame quenching

Factors affecting HC Emissions

a) Surface volume (S/V) ratio
b) Small displacement volume will have a higher surface to volume
ratio
c) Combustion chamber shape, bore/stroke ratio and compression ratio affect the
S/V ratio
d) Lower CR, lower d/l ratio, larger displacement per cylinder lowers S/V ratio,
hence increases HC emissions.
Wall Quenching
a. Because of the low temperature at the quenched zone, the A: F mixture fails to ignite
and remains unburned
b. Thickness of quenched layer is also influenced by mixture temperature, pressure and
equivalence ratio, wall surface materials and combustion deposits on the wall

Incomplete combustion: If the mixture is rich or lean; the flame propagation becomes
weak, causes incomplete combustion and result in HC emission
Factors which lead to incomplete flame propagation
c. Poor carburetion and mixture preparation
d. Poor condition of the ignition system
e. Scavenging problem due to improper valve over lap
f. Poor swirl and turbulence
g. Excess exhaust residual gas within the cylinder
h. Exhaust gas recirculation not properly controlled

Exhaust gas analysis.

Method and instruments for exhaust gas analysis.
1. Gas chromatography and flame ionization detector
2. Smoke meters
3. Exhaust gas analyzers
4. Chemiluminescence Analyzers (CLA) for Measuring NO
5. Colorimeter
We will be using exhaust gas analyzer for our exhaust gas analysis. The different
types of exhaust gas analyzers are:
a. 2 Gas Analyzer – CO/HC – Model 9003.
b. 4 Gas Analyzer – CO/CO2/HC/O2 – Model 9004.
c. 5 Gas Analyzer – CO/CO2/HC/O2/NOx – Model 9005.
Considering the temperature won’t rise enough in an SI engine, we assume there
won’t be any NOx formation in a SI engine so, we prefer to use 4 gas analyzers for
exhaust gas analysis of our project.

Exhaust Gas Analyzer: Non-dispersive Infra-red Absorption Gas Analyzer

for Measuring CO/CO2/HC/O2
An exhaust gas analyzer is an instrument for the measurement of CO among
other gases in the exhaust, caused by an incorrect combustion. It measures trace
gases by determining the absorption of an emitted infrared light source through
a certain air sample. It is done by selective absorption. Infra-red energy of particular
wavelength or frequency is peculiar to a certain gas. The gas will absorb the IR
energy of this wavelength and transmit IR energy of other wavelengths. Gas
detector doesn't directly
interact with the gas. Gas molecules only interact with a light beam.
The fraction of radiation at a particular wavelength is given by beer’s law,

Tλ= (e)- Ꝭ αλ L

where, Ꝭ = gas density,

αλ= monochromatic absorptivity
and L = path length
Tλ = radiation
E.g.: absorption band for CO is b/w 4.5 & 5 microns. So, energy absorbed at
this wavelength
an indication of concentration of CO in exhaust gas.

Fig: Exhaust gas analyzer

It consists of 2 IR sources, interrupted simultaneously by an optical chopper.

Radiation from the sources pass in parallel paths through a reference cell and a
sample cell to a common detector in the opposite side. Sample cell contains sample to
be analyzed. This compound is not present in the reference cell. It usually
contains inert gas, usually Nitrogen, which doesn’t absorb IR energy for wavelength
corresponding to compound to be measured. A closed container filled only with
the compound to be measured works as detector.
The amount of infrared rays absorbed by a sample cell is detected by the mass flow
sensor.

Detector is divided into 2 equal volumes by a thin metallic diaphragm. When chopper
blocks the radiation, pressure in both parts of detector is same and diaphragm remains
in neutral position. As chopper blocks and unblocks radiation, radiant energy from
one source pass through reference cell unchanged, whereas sample cell absorbs IR
energy at wavelength of compound in cell. The absorption is proportional to
concentration of compound to be measured in sample cell. These unequal energies
are transmitted to 2 volumes of detector, and pressure difference thus produced
causes movement of diaphragm of detector. This changes capacitance of diaphragm
and a fixed probe, thus generate ac signal, amplified, rectified to dc & displayed
on a meter. The signal is function of concentration of measured compound.

Fig: Exhaust gas analyzer

2.2. Justification (Rationals of research) In this section the scholar should
mention the potential benefits of the study
If we could only enhance carburetor performance as close to EFI’s, not only it’ll
assist in better carburetion but also makes it simpler to install fuel injection system
in automobiles, better emission control, low overall cost.
2.3. Hypothesis (This section should highlight the scholar’s
theoretical concept/approach in addressing the issue)
The process of optimizing traditional carburetor into EFI based carburetor
includes use of fuel injector, ARDUINO microcontroller along with required
sensors like MAP sensor and others.

2.4.
Research objective
Aims & Objectives:
Aims:
a) Improve fuel efficiency
b) Sensor testing
c) Sensor and engine assembly
d) Engine testing with electronic control unit (ECU)
Objectives:
The main objectives behind doing this research are as follows:
a) Modifying traditional carburetor into throttle body injection using
ECU and fuel injectors and thus enhancing performance.
b) Data analyzing between traditional carburetor & Throttle body injection
in terms of power, performance & efficiency
c) Checking emissions.
d) Reduced overall costs as compared to fully EFI system.
e) Elimination of vapor locking problem.
3) Methodology:
A systematic methodology was followed, starting from literature review to achieve
the objectives of this project.

The steps involved are as follows:

1. Reviewing the literature related to carburetor fuel system and throttle body fuel
injection system.
2. Preparing electrical circuit required for operation of TBI system.
3. Preparation of layout of TBI system
4. Selection of materials used for construction of throttle body fuel injection.
5. Construction of the real model of TBI system
6. Demonstration of the functionality of TBI system.

The understructure of the proposed research is established after considering the

information obtained from many literature reviews. The research is set in a way that it
would be practically feasible and cost effective.
For analyzing the data, above experiment will be carried out in a research engine. Fuel
efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption, HC emission will be checked and
compared to that of normal carburetor engine.
Experimental Setup: The schematic EFI circuit diagram for the project to be carried is
given below.

And the amount of fuel that should be metered into the engine by an injector
is determined using equation: P V = n R T Where, P = gas pressure,

V= gas volume,

n= no. of mole,
R= ideal gas constant

The gas pressure can be measured from MAP sensor, Temperature can
be approximated or thermometer/thermistor can be used, and gas volume can be
calculated by measuring RPM of engine and engine displacement.
 Engine performance parameters
Following are the different parameters of engine performance:
1.Speed
2. Fuel consumption
3. Brake horse power
4. Indicated H.P. & Friction H.P.
5. Smoke density
6. Heat going to cooling water
7. Heat going to exhaust
8.Exhaust gas analysis
Objective of testing
1. Engine performance during development
2. Engine performance testing by government agencies for certification.

A. Measurement of speed
The best method of measuring speed is to count the number of revolutions in a given
time. This gives an accurate measurement of speed. Many engines are fitted with such
revolution’s counters. It is measured by crankshaft position sensor.
Different types of tachometer available in the market are:
1. On the basis of method of display: Analog & Digital
2. On the basis of data acquisition: Contact & non-contact

B. Measurement of Brake Power

Brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the
angular speed of the engine output shaft. It is measured by dynamometer.
B.P.= Torque*Angular speed
But, angular speed= (2*π*N)/60
Hence, B.P = (2*π*N*T)/60000
(KW)

Measurement of Fuel
consumption
It is measured by determining the volume flow in a given time interval and
multiplying it by the specific gravity of the fuel. It is measured by burette method.
Mass flow rate of fuel supply:
= Volume/time x Density of fuel
Density of fuel= Sp. Gravity of fuel x Density of water

C. Measurement of Indicated Power

To determine IP, P-V diagram is required, the area of which represents work developed
by engine per cycle. Apparatus used for drawing actual P-V diagram is called
mechanical/engine indicator.
Mathematically,
Imep= (2*pi*n*T)/N*Vd
Where, Vd= Volume (displacement) of a cylinder
=Piston top area * stroke
=(π*D2)/4 * L
n= Number of crankshaft rotations
 N= Number of cylinders
Hence, IP = (Imep*L*A*n)/60000 * No. of cylinders (KW)

D. Measurement of Friction Power

The difference between indicated power & brake power output of an engine is the
friction power. The frictional losses are ultimately dissipated to the cooling system
and
exhaust as they appear in the form of frictional heat and this influences the
cooling capacity required.

4. Expected outcome
At the end of the project we are expecting the following outcomes which are pointed
below:
a. The fuel efficiency of the carried experiment with optimization of carburetor should
be higher than that of normal carburetor engine.
b. After the successful conduction of the experiment, the practical application of
optimizing conventional carburetor can be done in old motorbikes and small engine
vehicles.
c. The percentage of HC, CO, and carbon particles in the emission must be down by
some value.
d. Brake-specific fuel consumption must be lower.

5. Budget Structure
6. Working Schedule
6.1 Flowchart:
The flowchart for the overall project is shown in figure below. This
flow chart will serve as the general guidance to steer this project in the
right
direction.

Research Flowchart
6.2 Project schedule

Gantt Chart
2078-04-15 2078-06-04 2078-07-24 2078-09-12 2078-11-01 2078-12-21

Proposal making

Budget estimation

Collection of parts

Experimental setup

Experiment Execution

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Documentation

Report- making

Report- Document Data Data Experimen Experimen Collection Budget Proposal

making ation Analysis Collection t Execution tal setup of parts estimation making
Start date 2078-10-252078-10-202078-10-102078-09-252078-09-252078-09-102078-08-102078-08-012078-04-15
Day to complete 16 10 10 15 15 15 31 9 91

7) References:

a. Katijan, Adnan, et al. "An Experimental Study for Emission of

Four StrokeCarbureted and Fuel Injection Motorcycle Engine." Journal of
Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 62.2 (2019):
256-264.
b. Reddy, K. V. M. K., Reddy, B. M., Reddy, K. C. S., Kartheek, P., & Adarsh,
T.S (2021, April). Comparative investigation of electronic fuel injection in
two-wheeler applications: A Review. In IOP Conference Series: Materials
Science and Engineering (Vol. 1116, No. 1, p. 012073). IOP Publishing.
c. Latey, A. A., Bhatti, T. S., Das, L. M., & Babu, M. G. (2005). Gasoline fuel
injection investigations on single cylinder SI engine (No. 2005-26-012). SAE
Technical Paper.

d. Katijan, A., Latif, M. F. A., Zahmani, Q. F., Zaman, S., Kadir, K. A., & Veza,
I. (2019). An Experimental Study for Emission of Four Stroke Carbureted
and Fuel Injection Motorcycle Engine. Journal of Advanced Research in
Fluid
 Mechanics and Thermal Sciences, 62(2), 256-264.
e. Muslim, M. T., Selamat, H., Alimin, A. J., Rohi, N. M., & Hushim, M.
F. (2014). A review on retrofit fuel injection technology for small
carburetted motorcycle engines towards lower fuel consumption and
cleaner exhaust emission. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 35,
279-284.

f. Hailekiros, K. (2016). Conversion of Carburetor Fuel System to Throttle Body

Injection System (Doctoral dissertation).
g. Akiyama, H., Suzuki, K., Araki, K., & Nakano, Y. (2005). Development
of carburetors and element parts of fuel injection system for motorcycles
(No. 2005-32-0068). SAE Technical Paper.
h. Coverdill, R. E., Kirwan, J. E., Brandon, L. E., & Peters, J. E. (1989).
The effects of throttle body injection on fuel/air distribution in a spark
ignition engine. Combustion science and technology, 66(4-6), 189-198.
i. Sapate, K. D., & Tikekar, A. N. (2013). Mechanical Modifications to Convert
Small Two Strokes Carbureted Engine to Electronic Fuel Injection
System Engine to Reduce Emission and Fuel Consumption. Advanced
Materials Research, 768, 213–
217. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.768.213
j. M. H. Mohsin, A. u. R. Khan, S. H. Mujtaba, M. B. Khan and U. Khalid, "An
efficient carburetor design using electronic fuel injection for small
vehicles based on 110 cc self-start 4 stroke engine," 17th IEEE International
Multi Topic Conference 2014, 2014, pp. 473-476, doi:
10.1109/INMIC.2014.7097386