CSC 4102

Crop Management II
Fertilizer Application
- Most soils exhibit nutrient deficiencies of one kind or another
- Organic and inorganic fertilizers are used to augment soil supplies
- Nutrient release is much more rapid from inorganic fertilizers
- Inorganic fertilizers are applied at much lower rates
- Fertilizers may be usage or nutrient specific
- Calcium carbonate is used to lime soils (i.e. to raise pH)
- Nutrient specific fertilizers supply specific essential nutrients
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II

Fertilizer Application
- Fertilizers may be Gases, Liquids, Granules, Pellets, Powders, Organic
Materials
- Single-nutrient fertilizers (straights) supple a single element
- Urea supplies nitrogen; TSP supplies phosphorus
- Multi-nutrient fertilizers (mixed) supply more than one
- 15-15-15 or 12-12-17-2 are examples of mixed fertilizers
- There are a few binary fertilizers; DAP supplies N and P
- Micronutrient fertilizers supply trace elements
CSC 4102
Fertilizers
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Some commonly used fertilizers
Name Nutrient(s) Supplied Chemical; Analysis
Urea Nitrogen 45 – 46% MN
Ammonium Sulphate Nitrogen, Sulphur 21% N; 24% S
Triple Superphosphate Phosphorus 44 – 52% P₂O₅
Diammonium Phosphate Nitrogen, Phosphorus 18 – 21% N; 46 – 53% P₂O₅
Muriate of Potash Potassium 60% K₂O
15-15-15 N, P, K As indicated
12-12-17-2 N, P, K As indicated
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Fertilizer Application – Methods
- Broadcasting – fertilizers are spread uniformly over the entire field
- suitable for crops with dense stands e.g. rice, pastures
- Placement – refers to fertilizer placement in relation to rows
- suitable for row crops; P fertilizers may need placement
- Localized placement – may involve drilling or side dressing
- Band placement – may involve hill placement or along rows
- Foliar application – uses applicators that apply liquids
CSC 4102
Broadcasting
 CSC 4102
Row Application
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Organic Fertilizers
- Materials derived from animal or vegetable matter; waste material
- Materials are decomposed by soil microbes; essential nutrients released
- Organic matter possesses colloidal properties
- OM increases soils’ water holding and cation exchange capacities
- Soils with adequate OM content show better aggregation
- Soils also have lower bulk densities, greater porosities and infiltration
- Decomposition rates differ very widely
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Organic Fertilizers
- Animal sources include manures, poultry litter, blood and bone meal
- Plant sources include crop residue and by-products and green manures
- Biochar - stable form of carbon made by pyrolysis of organic feedstock
- It possesses the same features as previously described for OM
- It persists in soils for thousands of years
- It represents a form of carbon sequestration
- Biochar offers a legitimate way of mitigating climate change
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Organic Fertilizers
- The level of nutrients present in organic fertilizer is often low
- Nutrients are usually complexed in organic chemical structure
- Crop response may be slow; high rates of application are required
- Many forms of OM are not suited to mechanical application methods
- Organic fertilizers are generally used in small-scale farming
- There is an increasingly wide range of liquid organic fertilizer products
- This development can accelerate the practice of organic farming
 CSC 4102
Organic Fertilizers
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Mulching
- Placement of layers of inorganic/organic materials on the soil surface
- Primary purpose is usually moisture conservation
- Mulches can suppress weeds combat erosion and reduce compaction
- Mulch action prevents direct impact of rain on soil particles
- Restricts evaporation of moisture from soil profile
- Light penetration below the mulch layer is variable
- Mulch layer creates an insulation to restrict temperature fluctuations
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Mulching
- Typical organic mulches include dried leaves/grass, straw, bark
- Inorganic mulches include plastics, rubber, stone and geotextiles
- Sandy soils are the most frequent beneficiaries
- Mulching is most often used in drier climates
- Organic mulches can be useful nutrient sources
- Plastic mulches may be costly but more efficient in moisture retention
- The weed suppression function may be colour dependent
 CSC 4102
Mulching

Grass Clippings Shredded Leaves Bark

CSC 4102
Mulching
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Crop Protection
- The science and practice of managing diseases, weeds and other pests
- Damage is caused by insects, birds, rodents, weeds, microbes
- Pesticide-based approaches use herbicides, insect ides, fungicides
- Biological control uses trap crops, cover crops, biological predators
- Barrier-based approaches use bird netting, agro-textiles
- Animal psychology based approach employs bird scaring
- Biotechnology-based approaches use genetic modification/breeding
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Crop Protection
- Most often, the aim is to minimize pest damage
- Prophylaxis is often adopted in disease management
- Insects, fungi and bacteria can rapidly develop resistance to chemicals
- Plants also develop resistance to herbicides
- Use of multiple approaches to pest management is recommended
- Integrated Pest Management is seen as the way to go
- Nevertheless, pest management needs to be regularly reviewed
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Pesticides
- Range includes insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides
acaricides
- Active ingredients are harmful to pests’ metabolism
- They are not usually pest-specific; damage can be widespread
- Recommended application rates are of critical importance
- Increasing concern about effects on human health
- This has led to regulation by WHO, FAO and other bodies
- Misuse within farming communities – a major problem
CSC 4102
Pesticides
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Integrated Pest Management
- A multidisciplinary endeavor
• Agronomy—understanding the crop, the soils and landscape
• Entomology—understanding insects and mites
• Plant pathology—understanding disease ‐causing microorganisms .
• Economics is basically making decisions that generate profit
• Agric. Engineering addresses how we deliver management tactics
• Climatology - understanding weather trends (rainfall, wind and
temperature)
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Integrated Pest Management – Tools
• Cultural – resistant varieties, crop rotation, tillage, timing of activities, crop
sanitation, water mgt. weed mgt. balanced fertilizer use

• Mechanical – manual destruction of pests; exclusion by use of physical

barriers; use of traps

• Physical – heat application (exposing grain to sunlight); moisture

manipulation (useful with seed); use of light traps

• Genetic – use of the sterile male techniques

 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Integrated Pest Management – Tools

• Biological – natural enemies; parasites, parasitoids and predators;

propagation and dissemination of specific microbial diseases

• Regulatory – plant quarantine; domestic quarantine services; foreign

quarantine services

• Chemical – use of attractants. repellants, growth inhibitors and specific

pesticides; the use of natural products is especially encouraged
 CSC 4102
Integrated Pest Management
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Biological Pest Control
- Involves the use of natural enemies
- Relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory and other natural
mechanisms
- Importation – natural enemy is introduced to the crop environment
- Augmentation – large populations of enemies are administered
- Conservation – natural enemies are regularly reestablished
- Biological control can have side effects on biodiversity
- It is difficult to identify enemies for many exotic pests
 CSC 4102
Biological Pest Control
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Biotechnology in Crop Protection
- Biotechnology refers to techniques used in modification of living organisms
- Selective breeding, cloning and other methods have been used
- Modification using recombinant DNA technology started in 1970’s
- Use of recombinant DNA technology has led to transgenic plants
- Improved productivity and pest resistance are incorporated
- Further advances will likely result in crops with a wider range of traits
- Greater emphasis will be placed on nutritional traits
 CSC 4102
Crop Management II
Biotechnology in Crop Protection
- GM foods pose risks and benefits to humans
- Foods with higher digestible Fe content have positive health effects
- Gene transfers can result in transfer of allergic risk
- Potential ecological risks include increased weediness
- This can result from cross pollination in non-target areas
- B. thuringiensis genes can confer resistance in insects
- Risks and opportunities require careful management
 CSC 4102
Biotechnology in Crop Protection
 CSC 4102
Biotechnology in Agriculture

Biotechnology in Crop Protection