GOVT 1001

TOPIC 8
MACHIAVELLI
Historical Background
 At the time of Machiavelli’s beginning Italy was very much in a bad place. Several things
were happening across the country.
 It was the period ending Medieval times and entering into the Renaissance which saw Italy
invaded by powerful states as Spain and France.
 Rome saw the rise of Alexander Borgia who won the Papal Election through bribery and
appropriate the wealth of the Church to the benefit of his family.
 In the city of Florence, the Medici Family found themselves in the precarious situation of
gaining and losing power. Other cities such as Genoa became a republic and Venice a
dictatorship.
 The country of Italy was without a hereditary Monarch to rule and it was without a
centralized Government. Each city was like a separate territory ran by the oligarchic
families.
 Overview
 Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527
 A Florentine Secretary and Political Writer
 Born in Florence Italy, Son of a Civil Lawyer
 Because he was ineligible for political office in the post 1494 Republican Regime, depended
on paid employment in the Chancery.
 His political method is based on this experience.
 Machiavelli’s life falls into three periods.
 1469-1498: the early years in Florentine
life during the ascent of Lorenzo de’ Medici
life after the expulsion of Medici’s son Piero de’ Medici in 1494
life during the Republican Government of Savonarola.
 1498-1511: active role in politics
head of the second chancery
trusted friend and confidant of New Head of State
Piero Soderini
 During this period Machiavelli became Secretary of the War Magistracy of
Ten, Secretary of the new Nine of Militia, which he was responsible for
creating in 1506.
 He was Government envoy to some thirty five missions including for to
France (1500-1511); Siena (1501-1510); Cesare Borgia (1502); the Papal
Court (1503,1506) and Germany (1507-1508)
 1512-1527: Loss of Office and Brief Imprisonment
 Machiavelli suffered a brief imprisonment after the restoration of the Medici
 He began his literary career since according to him “because fortune has decided that,
being unable to discuss either the silk or the wool businesses, profits or losses, I must talk
about politics (lo stato)”
 He was successful in his attempts to gain the favour of the Medici through ‘The Prince’ in
1520. he was commissioned by Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici to write a history of Florentine
as well as a blue print for the Government of Florentine on the death of Lorenzo Duke of
Urbino- the Discursus.
 In 1526 he was appointed Chancellor of the Supervisors of the Walls, a year before the
Sack of Rome and fall of the Medici regime.
 Machiavelli died on June 21, 1527, 11 days after failing to recover his position in the
Chancery on the establishment of a Republican Government.
The Journey towards political theory
 One of Machiavelli’s most notable positions was as Political Advisor to the Borgia Family.
The Head of the family Alexander Borgia was Pope.
 Other reputable family members was Alexander’s eldest son Cesare Borgia known as a
blood thirsty warlord and his sister Lucrezia who is rumoured to have poisoned her way
through several husbands as a way of building her family wealth.
 Machiavelli became disillusioned with the constant bickering and infighting among the
Italian cities and recognised the “effectiveness” of the Borgia family members in seizing
and maintaining their power.
 His theory formulated on effective government resulted in a discourse known as "The
Prince," and he based his ideal "Prince" on Cesare Borgia's life.
Machiavelli’s Theory
 Machiavelli is known for his two writings; The Prince composed in 1513
dedicated to Lorenzo de’ Medici and The Discourses on the First Ten Books of
Titus Livy composed in 1519 and dedicated to two Republicans; Zanobi
Buondelmonti and Cosimo Ruchelli
 Relevant to his political thinking are the Arte della Guerra (1520); Discursus
(1520); Legations, Letters and the Isotorie Fiorentine. Note that all
Machiavelli’s writings were on the Papal Index from 1557 to 1850.
 His reputation as a political theorist is due firstly to his new ‘scientific method’
producing maxims such as that described by David Hume “ that politics may
be reduced to a science” as “one of those eternal political truths which no time
nor accident can vary”
 Secondly, the doctrine of moral expediency and deviousness which led to the
verb ‘to Machevallize’ or ‘Machiavellianize’ coined to mean to practice
‘cunning subtil policy
 Thirdly, the theory of political Republicanism, which according to JGA
Pocock was an important influence on English and American political thought
in the 17th and 18th century.
New Political Method
 Machiavelli claimed novelty for his method which he defined by drawing maxims or rules
for successful political behaviour from history and experience.
 It is claimed that Machiavelli was the ‘ first to reduce public and civil actions to rules
drawn from the most useful field of history’. The method is illustrated in The Prince,
Chapter 3 where the general rule that : he who enables someone to become powerful ruins
himself” this is drawn directly from Machiavelli’s practical experience with Louis XII’s
campaign which made Popes Alexander VI and Julius II strong at his own expense.
 This general rule is further illustrated where ancient Roman and contemporary Florentine
greed and treachery provides the maxim “don’t trust the French” since the affairs of the
world “are conducted by men who have and always have had the same passions, which of
necessity produces the same result”
 Machiavelli’s method has been called inductive or scientific in drawing conclusions from
practical or historical experience of human nature that is unchanging in political regimes
which experience a natural cycle of growth and decay.
 Although Machiavelli’s method contains “myths” ( as discussed by Anglo and Hulliung),
his originality lies in his use of the growing Renaissance emphasis on man’s behavioural
patterns instead of Christian Moral Precepts as a basis for politics.
 His method is based on a pragmatic and utilitarian (functional) approach to politics by
getting the real truth to be useful instead of applying imaginary situations
 It is a realistic assessment of politics in terms of power and control (where it is said that in
all republics, the number of persons who reach positions of command is never more than
40 or 50) and they can be kept quiet with honours or being done away with. The rest of
people simply want security.
 Accordingly, Governments consists of nothing else but in controlling subjects that they
will not be able to nor have reason to them harm.
 Of human nature, Machiavelli says in terms of its passions and animality, to control; one
must be like a centaur; half man and half beast and to which one must combine the
cunningness of a fox with the strength of a lion; both cruel and tightfisted as necessity
demands.
 Machiavelli further accepts that conflict is a positive force in politics as long as it is
institutionalized as was done in Rome (according to the rules of Pope Alexander Borgia)
and as it was in rejecting consensus or the middle ground.
 It also recognises the State as an organic structure governed by its own laws of
development and enjoying its own justification in terms of its successes.
 He claims that the ruler’s success will be judged by popular verdict and the means he uses
will be excused if they are successful. According to him’ for in politics where there is no
court of appeal, one judges by the result.
Morality and Religion
 Machiavelli did not subordinate moral standards to political ones; he recognised how
credible it was for a Prince to keep his word and to live by integrity and not be deceit. It
further noted however, that it was not only by Christian standards but by Human
Standards to treat persons humanely.
 Furthermore, he does not deny the importance of religion in the state in making citizens
good and obedient.
 However, in confronting the politician with a choice between public success and private
goodness; Machiavelli threatens traditional morality.
 For him; although honesty us praiseworthy, men’s nature is such that ‘a wise ruler…cannot
and should not keep his word when it would be to his advantage. It should be noted that
Machiavelli was consistently critical of Christianity for teaching the wrong virtues for a
strong and successful state and for setting a bad moral example itself.
 In his view of men he says “who never do good unless driven by necessity and proceed as
the force of nature compels them” he also says limits the role of Christian free will and
encourages moral flexibility and doctrine.
 While it is argues that there is no conflict for Machiavelli between the two systems of
values he puts forward; the question on how far does political success excuses immoral
behaviour remains as controversial today as it was in Machiavelli’s time.
 His belief that fortune controls half our lives also has important moral and political
implications.
 Accordingly, it is the ruler’s needs to be ready to turn where the winds of fortune and the
changeability of affairs require him which often obliges him to act against his promises,
against charity, humanity and religion. This therefore raises the question of political virtue
and who should rule.
Republicanism
 Machiavelli’s political virtue has nothing to do with moral virtue or traditional behaviour
but consists of boldness, courage and flexibility. These qualities are rarely found in one
person. He therefore concludes that Republics are preferable to participates because they
offer a wider range of characteristics to adapt to changing circumstances.
 The need for flexibility prevents Machiavelli from offering a definitive solution to the
problem of government. Single rulers are necessary as founders and reformers of state.
Republican Governments are better sustaining states once established.
 According to Him, not only can republics adapt better to changing circumstances due to
mixed citizenry, but the opportunity they offer of political and military participation
provides greater fulfilment for human beings.
 Machiavelli establishes an early awareness of the power of the people or masses
(moltitudine) not because they are the final judges of all political action but more so
because in the ‘make up of the world there are only common people’
 Machiavelli’s model was the Roman Republic and whilst it has been accused of lack of
realism in admiring Rome; the citizen militia he established in 1506 and his blueprint for
the Government of Florence shows its practical importance.
 In the hands of Machiavelli and his contemporaries; classical republicanism also served to
justify the growing power of the state. He states in 1520 Discursus, “I believe the
greatest good that can be done and the most pleasing to God is that which is done to
one’s country”.
 It must be noted that Hulliung has argued that Machiavelli’s Republicanism offers a tough
theory of power politics that is perfectly consistent with the political argument of The
Prince.
Commentary by Dr. K Wheeler on Machiavelli’s
thought
 Machiavelli famously asserted that good rulers sometimes have to learn "not to be good,"
 They have to be willing to set aside ethical concerns of justice, honesty, and kindness in
order to maintain the stability of the state. Isn’t this relevant to politics today?
 Machiavelli argued that the most successful kings were not the ones who acted according
to dictates of law, or justice, or conscience, but those willing to do whatever was
necessary to preserve their own power--and thus indirectly preserve the order of the
state.
 According to Dr Wheeler, "The Prince," is in fact, a subtle mockery of the idea that rulers
should be noble in their character. The implication of his title is that the idealized Prince
Charming is a mere fairy tale.
 It should be noted that Machiavelli was excommunicated for espousing his views, but his
arguments had a profound effect on Renaissance attitudes toward government.
 In literature such as Renaissance drama, the "machiavelle," or machiavellian villain,
became a moustache-twirling stereotypical villain--the bad guy who appears to be good in
front of all his companions in order to betray them all the more effectively.
"Machiavellian" became a by-word for treachery, sneakiness, ambition, and
ruthlessness.
Notable Teachings of Machiavelli
 The end justifies the means
According to Machiavelli, a morally right act is one which causes a positive result. Note
however that most times people are more taken up with the result that the leader achieves not
taking time to investigate the details which may not always be “good”. There will be instances
where a leader fails in his goal but the details were “good” but resulted in a bad outcome. It
will then be said if attention is given to the details that it wasn’t “good enough”.

 A question arises: whether it be better to be loved than feared or feared than loved?
It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them
in one person, it is much safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two, either must be
dispensed with.
 The strength of good public relations.
Regardless of what one does to retain or sustain power, good leaders must always appear to
possess certain characteristics even if they don’t.

 “It is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify the wolves.“
One cannot always approach situations and opponents as brutish, one must be able to act with
instinct and insight to recognise ploys and set ups. They must also be able to mask their
weakness in cunningness and strategy. There will be times when the leader must be strong as
a lion to deal with the wolves within and outside of the pack.

 Build an enduring leadership structure and strong team

A Prince is as strong as his team. Where his men are faithful and skilled then the Prince is
considered to be wise.
Further commentary on Machiavelli
 Machiavelli had a direct impact on European (political) thought and culture; the reason for
this is that he was seen as immoral or amoral. His discussion of morality (and leadership) in
The Prince, and the claim that one merely only mimics virtue rather than possessing or
aiming for it scandalised many people and thinkers for centuries
 In the book “On Politics” author Alan Ryan writes “Many thinkers - and even President
Eisenhower - have found it difficult to digest ‘Machiavelli's insistence on the tension
between the demands of morality and the demands of political practice' (p. 358).
 Dr. Andy Mansfield reiterates people did not (and do not) like the notion of the “ends”
justifying the “means”, and people being used to achieve those “ends” either as individuals
or for “reason of state”.