DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

AND OTHER RELEVANT

THEORIES
SIXIANE KIM B. RECEPCION
THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Theories of development provide a framework for
thinking about human growth, development, and
learning. But why do we study development? What can
we learn from psychological theories of development? If
you have ever wondered about what motivates human
thought and behavior, understanding these theories can
provide useful insight into individuals and society.
TYPES OF THEORIES
• Developmental Theories
Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and
concepts that describe and explain human development. Some
developmental theories focus on the formation of a specific quality, such
as Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Other developmental
theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
• Grand Theories
Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas often proposed by major
thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget.
 TYPES OF THEORIES
Grand theories of development include psychoanalytic theory, learning theory
and cognitive theory. These theories seek to explain much of human behavior, but
are often considered outdated and incomplete in the face of modern research.
Psychologists and researchers often use grand theories as a basis for exploration,
but consider smaller theories and recent research as well. 
• Minitheories
Minitheories describe a small, very specific aspect of development. A
minitheory might explain fairly narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem is
formed or early childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the
ideas established by grand theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain
the whole of human behavior and growth.
TYPES OF THEORIES
• Emergent Theories
Emergent theories are those that have been created fairly
recently and are often formed by systematically combining various
minitheories.
These theories often draw on research and ideas from many
different disciplines, but are not yet as broad or far-reaching as
grand theories. The sociocultural theory proposed by theorist Lev
Vygotsky is a good example of an emergent theory of
development.
THE PURPOSE OF PSYCHOLOGY THEORIES
• Theories provide a framework for understanding human
behaviour, thought, and development. By having a broad base of
understanding about the how's and why's of human behaviour,
we can better understand ourselves and others.
• Theories create a basis for future research. Researchers use
theories to form hypotheses that can then be tested.
• Theories are dynamic and always changing. As new discoveries
are made, theories are modified and adapted to account for new
information.
 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
What is Psychosexual Development?
Proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, the theory of
psychosexual development describes how personality develops during childhood.
While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most
controversial theories.
Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages
in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain
erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving
force behind behavior.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the
age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and
continue to influence behavior later in life.
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the
result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved
at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a
persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this
conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this
stage.
For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be
over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation
through smoking, drinking, or eating.
 FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
1. The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year  Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through
the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is
vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through
gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely
dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant
also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process-- the child must
become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral
fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
2. The Anal Stage 
Age Range: 1 to 3 years  Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the
libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major
conflict at this stage is toilet training-- the child has to learn to control
his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way
in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and
rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive
outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
• Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the
basis for people to become competent, productive and creative adults.
• However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that
children need during this stage. Some parents' instead punish, ridicule
or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in
negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud
suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the
individual has a messy, wasteful or destructive personality. If parents are
too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-
retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly,
rigid and obsessive.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
3. The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years Erogenous Zone: Genitals
During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At
this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the
mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to
possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also
fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed
castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience
penis envy.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex
parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent.
For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never
fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated
on this stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory,
calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead,
Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority
because they cannot give birth to children.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
4. The Latent Period
Age Range: 6 to Puberty Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The
development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The
stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is
still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits
and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social
and communication skills and self-confidence.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
5. The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to Death Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual
Interests
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual
develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins
during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs,
interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other
stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be
well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas.
FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little
mention of female psychosexual development.
His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the
libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The
research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory.
Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current
behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of
time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a
relationship between the two variables.
Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research.
Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not
on actual observation and study of children.
FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
Freud described the personality structures as having three
components, the id, the ego, and the superego. For each person,
the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego, and last to
develop is the superego.

ID EGO SUPEREGO

ONE’S
PERSONALITY
 FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
• The Id, Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The Id plays a vital
role in one’s personality because as a baby, it works so that the
baby’s essential needs are met. The id operates on the PLEASURE
PRINCIPLE. It focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its
needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
consideration for the reality, logically or practicality of the situation.
• For example, a baby is hungry. It’s id wants food or milk so the baby
will cry. When the child needs to be changed, cold or just want
attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
• Nothing else matter to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs.
If the id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!
 FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
• The ego, as the baby turns into toddler and then into a
preschooler, he/she relates more with the environment, the
ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the
reality principle.
• It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is to
negative consequences later, so it reasons and considers the
best response to situations. As such as, it is the deciding
agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id
meets its needs, it always takes into account the reality of
the situation.
 FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
• The superego, near the end of the preschool year , or the
end of phallic stage, the superego develops. The
superego embodies a person’s moral aspect. This
develops from what the parents, teachers and other
persons who exert influence impart to be good or moral.
The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts
influence on what one considers right and wrong.
TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL
• Unconscious
Freud said that the most what we go through in ur lives,
emotions, beliefs, feelings and impulses deep within are not
available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of
what influence to us is our CONSCIOUS LEVEL. The Oedipus
and Electra Complex mentioned were both buried down into
the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme
anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our
unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling and
doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL
• Conscious
Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored
in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only
comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in
our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part
of what makes up our personality; most of what we are
is hidden and out of reach.
TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL
The water, may represent all that we are
not aware of, have not experienced, and that
has not been made part of our personality
referred to as the NONCONCIOUS
 PIAGET’S
THEORY OF
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPM
ENT
Who is Jean Piaget?
• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th century's most influential
researchers in the area of developmental psychology.
• He was originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and
considered himself a "Genetic Epistemologist".
• Piaget wanted to know how children learned through their
development in the study of knowledge.
• He administered Binet's IQ test in Paris and observed that children's
answers were qualitatively different.
• Piaget's theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds
cognitive structures. He believes that the child's cognitive structure
increases with the development.
• Piaget's Theory of infant development were based on his observations
of his own three children.
 What is Cognition?
• The term cognition is derived from the Latin word
"cognoscere" which means "to know" or "to recognize"
or "to conceptualize". • Cognition is "the mental action
or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding
through thought, experience, and the senses."
What is Cognitive Development?
• Cognitive Development is the emergence of the ability to think and
understand.
• The acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem solve.
• It is the process by which people's thinking changes across the life span.
• Piaget studied Cognitive Development by observing children in particular,
to examine how their thought processes changed with age. • It is the growing
apprehension and adaptation to the physical and social environment.
How Cognitive Development
occurs?

• Cognitive Development is gradual and orderly

changes by which mental process becomes more
complex and sophisticated.
• The essential development of cognition is the
establishment of new schemes.
• Assimilation and Accommodation are both the
processes of the ways of Cognitive Development.
• The equilibration is the symbol of a new stage of
the Cognitive Development.
 KEY CONCEPTS
1. Schema :
Schema is an internal representation of the world. It
helps an individual understand the world they inhabit.
They are cognitive structures that represent a certain
aspect of the world, and can be seen as categories which
have certain pre-conceived ideas in them. For example,
my schema for Christmas includes: Christmas trees,
presents, giving, money, green, red, gold, winter, Santa
Claus etc. Someone else may have an entirely different
schema, such as Jesus, birth, Church, holiday,
Christianity etc.
 KEY CONCEPTS

2. Assimilation :
It is using an existing schema to deal with a new object
or situation. Here, the learner fits the new idea into
what he already knows. In Assimilation, the schema is
not changed, it is only modified. Example : A 2 years old
child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has
long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the
toddler shouts “Clown, clown”
 KEY CONCEPTS

3. Accommodation :
This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does
not work and needs to be changed to deal with a new object
or situation.In Accommodation, the schema is altered; a new
schema may be developed. Example : In the “clown” incident,
the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a
clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he
wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things
to make people laugh.
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his
schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard
concept of “clown”.
 KEY CONCEPTS
4. Equilibration :
Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a
steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs
when a child's schemas can deal with most new information
through assimilation. As a child progresses through the stages of
cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge ( assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibrium helps explain how children are able
to move from one stage of thought to the next.
 The Sensorimotor Stage
(Birth to 2 years) - Infancy
Infants construct an understanding of
the world by coordinating sensory
experiences (seeing, hearing) with motor
actions (reaching, touching).
• Develop Object Permanence (memory) -
Realize that objects exist even if they are out
of sight.
• Infants progress from reflexive, instinctual
actions at birth to the beginning of problem
solving (intellectual) and symbolic abilities
(language) toward the end of this stage.
 Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs)
-Toddler and Early Childhood
• This stage begins when the child starts to use symbols
and language. This is a period of developing language and
concepts. So, the child is capable of more complex mental
representations (i.e, words and images). He is still unable
to use 'operations', i.e,logical mental rules, such as rules of
arithmetic. This stage is further divided into 2 sub-stages :
• Preconceptual stage (2-4 yrs) : Increased use of verbal
representation but speech is egocentric. The child uses
symbols to stand for actions; a toy doll stands for a real
baby or the child role plays mummy or daddy.
• Intuitive stage (4-7 yrs) : Speech becomes more social,
less egocentric. Here the child base their knowledge on
what they feel or sense to be true, yet they cannot explain
the underlying principles behind what they feel or sense.
 The following are the key features of this stage :
• Egocentrism:
The child's thoughts and communications are typically
egocentric (i.e, about themselves or their own point of
view). Eg.: "if i can't see you, you also can't see me". It is the
inability to see the world from anyone else's eyes. It is well
explained by Piaget as Three Mountain Task.

• Animism: Treating inanimate objects as living ones. Eg.:

children dressing and feeding their dolls as if they are alive.

• Concentration: The process of concentrating on one

limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects. It
is noticed in Conservation. Conservation on the other hand
is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the
arrangement and physical appearance of objects. Children
at this stage are unaware of conseravation.
 Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs) –
Childhood and Early Adolescence
The concrete operational stage is characterized by the
appropriate use of logic. Important processes during this stage
are :
• Seriation: The ability to sort objects in an order according to
size, shape or any other characterstic. Eg.: if given different-
sized objects, they may place them accordingly.
• Transitivity: The ability to recognize logical relationships
among elements in a serial order. Eg.: if A is taller than B and
B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C.
• Classification: The ability to group objects together on the
basis of common features. The child also begins to get the idea
that one set can include another. Eg.: there is a class of objects
called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs
are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs.
• Decentering: The ability to take multiple aspects of a
situation into account. Eg.: the child will no longer perceive
an exceptionally- wide but short cup to contain less than a
normally-wide, taller cup.
• Reversibility: The child understands that numbers or
objects can be changed, then returned to their original state.
Eg.: the child will rapidly determine that if 4+4=8 then 8-
4=4, the original quantity.
• Conservation: Understanding that the quantity, length or
number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or
appearance of the object or item.
• Elimination of Egocentrism: The ability to view things from
another's perspective.
• The child performs operations: combining, separating,
multiplying, repeating, dividing etc
Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs & above) –
Adolscence and Adulthood
• The thought becomes increasingly flexible and abstract, i.e,
can carry out systematic experiments.
• The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodological way.
• Understands that nothing is absolute; everything is relative.
• Develops skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning
as well as inductive reasoning and systematic planning etc.
• Understands that the rules of any game or social system are
developed by a man by mutual agreement and hence could
be changed or modified.
• The child's way of thinking is at its most advanced, although
the knowledge it has to work with, will change.
 Educational Implications
• Emphasis on discovery approach in learning.
• Curriculum should provide specific educational experience based
on children's developmental level.
• Arrange classroom activities so that they assist and encourage
self learning.
• Social interactions have a great educational value for Piaget.
Positive social actions, therefore should be encouraged.
• Instruction should be geared to the level of the child. As the
level of the child changes at each stage, the level of instruction or
exploratory activities should also change.
• Simple to Complex and Project method of teaching.
• Co-curricular activities have equal importance as that of
curricular experiences in the cognitive development of children.
• Major Goals of education according to Piaget are critical and
creative thinking.
 Contribution to Education
• Piaget's theory helped educators, parents and
investigators to comprehend the capacity of children
in their different stages.
• He made us conscious with the way children and
adults think.
• A lot of school programs have been redesigned
taking as base Piaget's discoveries.
• Piaget made a revolution with the developmental
psychology concentrating all his attention to the
mental process and his role with behavior.
 ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of
the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Much
like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality
develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of
psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of
social experience across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage
theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the
conscious sense of self that we develop through social
interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is
constantly changing due to new experiences and information
we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
 ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense
of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in
Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an
area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a
sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength
or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will
emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict
that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's
view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During
these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is
the potential for failure.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 1 - TRUST VS. MISTRUST
• The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs
between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
• Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on
the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
• If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in
the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or
rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.
• Of course, no child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100
percent doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about
striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens,
children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to
experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 2 - AUTONOMY VS.
SHAME AND DOUBT
• The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes
place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater
sense of personal control.
• Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this
process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of
Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one's bodily functions leads
to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
• Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
• Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,
while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
• Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and
doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with
intention, within reason and limits.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 3 - INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
• During the preschool years, children begin to assert their
power and control over the world through directing play
and other social interactions.
• Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and
able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills
are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of
initiative.
• When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a
willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego
quality known as purpose emerges.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 4 – INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
• This stage covers the early school years from approximately age
5 to 11.
• Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
• Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and
teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.
Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
• Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial
development leads to the strength known as competence or a
belief our own abilities to handle the tasks set before us.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 5 - IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION
• During adolescence, children explore their independence
and develop a sense of self.
• Those who receive proper encouragement and
reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge
from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused
about themselves and the future.
• Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which
Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards
and expectations.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 6 - INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
• This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring
personal relationships.
• Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will
form relationships that are committed and secure.
• Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps.
Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for
developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those
with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are
more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
• Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is
marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other
people.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 7 - GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

• During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on

our career and family.
• Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they
are contributing to the world by being active in their home
and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
• Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled
successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching
your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of
unity with your life partner are important accomplishments
of this stage.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 8 - INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR
• This phase occurs during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life.
• Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that
their life has been wasted and will experience many
regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair.
• Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a
sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means
looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even
when confronting death.
 THE STRENGTHS OF ERIKSON'S THEORY
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides
a broad framework from which to view development throughout
the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social
nature of human beings and the important influence that social
relationships have on development. Researchers have found
evidence supporting
Erikson's ideas about identity and have further identified
different sub-stages of identity formation. Some research also
suggests that people who form strong personal identities during
adolescence are better capable of forming intimate relationships
during early adulthood.
 LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
What kinds of experiences are necessary to successfully
complete each stage? How does a person move from one
stage to the next? One major weakness of psychosocial
theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts
and moving from one stage to the next are not well
described or developed.
The theory fails to detail exactly what type of
experiences are necessary at each stage in order to
successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next
stage.
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT
According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages.

Preconventional Level – Moral reasoning is based on the consequences/result

of the act, not on the whether the act itself is good or bad. Under this is the
stage 1 and 2.

Stage 1 – Punishment/Obedience
 One is motivated by fear of punishment. He will act in order to avoid
punishment.
Stage 2 – Mutual Benefit
 One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain later. “You
scratch may back , I’ll scratch yours”.

Conventional Level – Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or “norms”

of society. This may include approval of others, law and order. This will
include the stage 3.
Stage 3 – Social Approval
 One is motivated by what others expect in behavior – good boy, good girl.
The person acts because he/she values how he/she will appear to others.
He/she gives importance on what people will think or say.
Post-Conventional Level – Moral reasoning is based on enduring or
consistent principles. It is not just recognizing the law, but the principles
behind the law. The stages 4, 5, and 6 are under this level.

Stage 4 – Law and Order

 One I motivated to act in order to uphold law and order. The person
will follow the law because it is the law.

Stage 5 – Social Contract

 Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on social
justice and the common good.
• Stage 6 – Universal Principles
This is associated with the development of one’s
conscience. Having a set of standards that drives one to
possess moral responsibility to make societal changes
regardless of consequences to oneself. Examples of
persons are Mother Teres, Martin Luther King Jr.
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-
CULTURAL THEORY
OF DEVELOPMENT
SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

This theory stated that students

learn through social interactions
and their culture.
 3 CENTRAL FACTORS OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT

1. CULTURE
Vygotsky believed in the crucial role of culture
played on the cognitive development of children.
Vygotsky looked into the wide range of
experiences that a culture would give to a child.
 3 CENTRAL FACTORS OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT

2. SOCIAL INTERACTION
Vygotsky gave more weight on the social
interactions that contributed to the cognitive
development of individuals.
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning
happens through participation in social activities.
 3 CENTRAL FACTORS OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT

3. LANGUAGE
Language opens the door for learners to acquire
knowledge that others already have.
Learners use language to understand and solve
problems
It helps learner regulate and reflect his own
thinking
 PRIVATE SPEECH
is a form of “self-talk” that guides the child’s
thinking and action.

HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES
Help children acquire more knowledge than
passive listening.
 Zone of Actual Development
When a child attempts to perform a skill alone,
she/he may not be proficient at it.
 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Zone of proximal development defines those functions
that have not yet matured, but are in the process.
The gap between what a child can do alone and what
a child can do with help from adults or peers who are
more capable than the child. (Papalia, et al, 2011) Zone
of Proximal Development
 SCAFFOLDING
The support or assistance that lets the child
accomplish a task he cannot accomplish
independently.
Involves judicious assistance given by the adult or
peer. Scaffolding
 EXAMPLES OF SCAFFOLDING:
Adult unzips the zipper an inch or two and then
holds the lunch bag so that the child can
continue to unzip the lunch bag.
Loosening the food container lid just a bit and
letting the child open the lid himself.
 SCAFFOLD AND FADE-AWAY TECHNIQUE

Withdrawing the guidance when the

child could do on their own what they
could not initially do without assistance.
 VYGOTSKY THEORY
• Cognitive development is a product of social interaction
• Claims that there is a strong connection between learning
language and the development of thinking
• Highlights the role of mentor in cognitive development
• Well applied to teaching strategies.
• More social in focus
• Emphasized on cultural factors in cognitive development.
"What a child can do in cooperation
today, tomorrow she/he will be able to do
alone"
-Lev Vygotsky
BRONFRENBRENNER ECOLOGICAL THEORY

Urie Bronfenbrenner
was a Russian born
American developmental
psychologist who is most
known for his ecological
systems theory of child
development
BRONFENBRENNER’S MODEL IS ALSO
KNOWN AS BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

This theory present the child development

within the context of relationship system that
comprise the child environment.
BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICALMODEL
 MICROSYSTEM
The Microsystems Is the layer nearest the child. It
comprises structure which the child directly interacts
with. They are called immediate environment
Example: one’s family, school and neighborhood
Question: Does the child have strong and nurturing
relationships with the parents and the family?
Question: Are his/her needs met?
 MESOSYSTEM
This layer serve as the relationships between
two or more microsystems such as what is
learned at home culturally. They are called
connections. Example: Interactions between
the parents and teachers The parents and
health services The community and the church
 EXOSYSTEM
The Exosystem Environment that effect how
one develops that is out of their control.
They are called indirect environment.
Example: workplace, mass media, city
government
 MACROSYSTEM

The Macrosystem Is a large cultural and

social structural elements of the environment
that shape human development. They are
called social and cultural values.
Example: marriage ceremonies, outbreak of
Mers-Cov or Aids
 CHRONOSYSTEM

The Chronosystem Big events in the world

that help psychologist understand the affect it
will impact in a person’s development through
time. They are called Changes Over Time.
Example: A family through a divorce A nation
going to war
 THE ROLE OF SCHOOLS AND
TEACHERS

“The instability and unpredictability of family life is

the most destructive force to a child’s development”
Researchers tell us that the absence or lack of
children constant mutual interaction with important
adults has negative effects on their development.
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory reminds the school and
teachers of their very important role.
 THIS THEORY HELPS…
This theory helps teacher look into a very
child’s environmental systems in order to
understand more about the characteristics and
needs of each child, each learner.
The school and the teachers can contribute
stability and long term relationships in the home.
 THIS THEORY HELPS…
This theory helps teacher look into a very
child’s environmental systems in order to
understand more about the characteristics and
needs of each child, each learner.
The school and the teachers can contribute
stability and long term relationships in the home.
1. The Micro System
The micro system's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends,
classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with you are included in
your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with
these social agents. The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when
socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but we are contributing to the
construction of such environment.
2. The Mesosystem
The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life. This means that your
family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his
parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child
may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
3. The Exosystem
The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person does not
have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached
to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroadto work for several months, there may be a
conflict between the mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event
mayresult to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.
4. The Macrosystem
The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural
contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his
ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country.
For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every
day.
5. The Chronosystem
The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This
may also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person.
One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may
affect not only the couple's relationship but also their children's behavior.
According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on the
first year after the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the
interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable.