ANIMAL

PHYSIOLOGY

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–What is Animal
Physiology?
• The way animals work

–From cell to whole organism

–Digestive system, cellular
respiration, circulatory
system, homeostasis,
reproduction, etc
• from cell to whole organism
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Sem 01
Animal Physiology:

Digestive
system
Digestive system
 In animal, food is required for;
1. Fuel / energy
2. Nutrient
3. Biosynthesis

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 Food for fuel

 1 gm of:
fat produces 9.3 kcal of energy,
carbohydrate produces 4.1 kcal of
energy
protein produces 4.1 kcal of energy
High calorie foods will produce more
ATP molecules (cellular energy) 5
6
 Food for Biosynthesis
• Carbohydrates (General formula -
Cx(H2O)y) are the source of Carbon.

• Amino acids are the source of Nitrogen.

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 Food supplies essential nutrients
• Essential nutrients are
such as amino acids,
fatty acids, vitamins
and minerals
• Example:
• 8 amino acids are essential for
humans
• 13 vitamins in human - B
complex acts as co-enzymes in
metabolism, D required for
calcium absorption and bone
formation, K required for blood
clotting 9
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
10
 Form of Animal digestion:
 gastrovascular cavities (one opening) or
 alimentary canals (two openings)

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(1) Digestion in Gastrovascular Cavities (one
opening)
digestion that takes place within the
gastrovascular cavity of the sac-like body has
only one single opening that functions as both
mouth and anus
Animal with a gastrovascular cavity includes
Hydra and Planaria (Cnidaria and Flatworms)

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Animals with Gastrovascular cavity

Most are aquatic organisms

planaria

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hydra Jellyfish
(2) Digestion in Alimentary Canal (two openings)
 Highly-complex animals have a complete
digestive tract called alimentary canal
 with two openings: a mouth and an anus
 Food move through the mouth-pharynx-
esophagus-gizzard/stomach-intestines-anus
 undigested wastes are eliminate through the
anus
 Animals with this kind of digestion including
nematodes, annelids, mollusks, arthropods,
echinoderms and chordates

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Alimentary canal

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 Fundamental processes that take
place in digestive system:
• Ingestion occurs – eating
• Digestion follows – breakdown to soluble
molecules
• Absorption occurs – simpler form of food is
absorbed into blood and circulates
• Assimilation – food is converted into
substances required by the body or stored in
the body
• Egestion occurs – undigested food (e.g.
Cellulose) is eliminated through the anus
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Dietary categories
Feeding mechanisms: Ingestion

• Most animals ingest other organisms

• dead or alive
• whole or in pieces
• Other mechanisms of ingestion
• Absorptive feeders - tapeworms
• Substrate feeders - earthworms
• Fluid feeders - mosquitoes
• Filter feeders - oysters 19
Ingestive feeders:
Use a mouth to take in food
Eg: most animals – bears, orang
utans, snakes, anteaters
Absorptive feeders:
Absorb nutrients
directly from
extracellular fluid
because they are
parasitic (living in
the digestive
system of a hose)
Eg: tapeworms

59-foot long tapeworm discovered inside

Thai man's intestines
Filter feeders:
Collect small organisms and
particles from the surrounding water
Eg: oysters, mussels, whale, clam
Substrate feeders:
Eat the material through which they
burrow
Eg: earthworms, termites
Fluid feeder:
Pierce the body or a plant or animal and
withdraw fluids
Eg: aphids, mosquitoes
 Digestion
 is important because polymers are too large to
pass through cell membranes
 Hence, digestion is to break down huge
macromolecules into smaller molecules
 such as Proteins into amino acids, Fats into fatty
acids, Starch into glucose
 Smaller molecules can be absorbed across the wall
of the tube, and into the animal circulatory system

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 Absorption & Assimilation
• This involves the absorption of
food in the soluble form from the
region of digestion
• Digested molecules move to
blood vessel in villi
• Absorb per day:
 800 g food ingested
 1200 ml water ingested
 7000 ml secretions
• Assimilation - involves the
Utilisation of the nutrients for the
various functions of the body ~ 27

biosynthesis
 Egestion
• The removal of undigested food or
waste matter from the body is called
egestion
• In lower unicellular organisms like
the Amoeba, egestion is through the
general body surface or the cell
surface
• In multicellular organisms like the
Hydra, ingestion and egestion have
the same (one) opening
• However, in higher animals, the
digestive tract is complex and has a
second opening called the anus for
egestion
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 Human
Digestive
System
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 The mammalian digestive system is composed
of the alimentary canals with digestive organs
 Human have an extensive large intestine
 The basic parts of the digestive system are:
 Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver,
pancreas, small intestine, large intestine

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 Mouth Ingestion
and
Pharynx passage of
Esophagus food

Stomach Storage
and initial
digestion

Digestion
Intestines and
absorption

Undigeste
Rectum/anus d waste
egested

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TAKE 5
The basic parts of the digestive system
 Mouth: Foodstuffs are broken down mechanically
by chewing and saliva is added as a lubricant.
Saliva contains amylase, an enzyme that digests
starch
 Esophagus: A simple conduit between the mouth
and stomach
 Stomach: Where the real action begins -
enzymatic digestion of proteins initiated and
foodstuffs reduced to liquid form
 Liver: The centre of metabolic activity in the body
- provide bile salts to the small intestine, for
digestion and absorption of fats 34
 Pancreas: Important roles - provides digestive
enzymes to the small intestine which are
critical for digestion of fats, carbohydrates and
protein
 Small Intestine: The most exciting place to be
in the entire digestive system - this is where
the final stages of chemical enzymatic
digestion occur and where almost all nutrients
are absorbed
 Large Intestine: Major differences among
species in extent and importance - in all
animals water is absorbed, bacterial
fermentation takes place and faeces are
formed 35
Some Mammalian Digestive Enzymes
Origin Enzymes
salivary glands a-amylase
stomach pepsin
pancreas lipase
a-amylase
trypsin
ribonuclease
deoxyribonuclease
small intestine sucrase
lactase
maltase
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 The Human Digestive System
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URrXh0LJ6JE

 Mouth and Salivary

Glands :
 Mechanical
breakdown of food
begins by chewing
 Tongue manipulate
food into a ball (bolus)
 enzymes in saliva
begin to break down
carbohydrates 37
• Pharynx and Esophagus
 Pharynx is the throat, leads to
esophagus
 When swallowing food, epiglottis
will close trachea air openings to
prevent food from entering it
 The esophagus conducts food from
the pharynx down to the stomach
 Muscles in the esophagus propel the
bolus from mouth by Muscles in the
esophagus propel the bolus by
waves of involuntary peristalsis
movement 38
PERISTALSIS MOVEMENT
 Stomach: Hydrochloric acid & enzymes break
down proteins
 A stomach stores up to 2L of food and fluid
 It has enzymes with high concentration of
hydrochloric acid (gastric juice)
 The gastric juice has a pH about 2-acidic
enough to dissolve iron
 the juice contain pepsin-hydrolytic enzyme that
hydrolyses protein (break peptide bonds of
protein)
 Pepsin would not digest the stomach it self
because pepsin always in inactive form called
pepsinogen 40
 Pepsinogen being activated only by the gastric juice
 Gastric secretion being initiates when we see, smell
or taste food
 This secretion is controlled by combination of
nervous impulses and hormones
 Stomach is closed off at both end most of the time
 The opening from esophagus happens when
stomach receives food bolus of peristalsis
movement and the bolus become acid chyme
 The other opening of stomach (to small intestine) is
controlled by pylorus
 It takes about 2-6 hours for the stomach to empty
the acid chyme 41
 Stomach and
Duodenum (small intestine)

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 Small Intestine:
 Consist of duodenum, jejunum
and ileum
 In most animals, the length of
the small intestine is roughly
3.5 times body length
 Completes digestion by
enzymes (digest proteins, fats,
& carbohydrates) 
 Most absorption of digested
food occurs here
 Absorbs 8500 ml/day
 Most digestion and absorption
completed in first 20% of the
small intestine tube 43
 Duodenum: Controls the release of food into
the small intestine ~
 Is a section in small intestine where acid
chyme mix with digestive juice from
pancreas, liver and gallbladder
 Examples:
Trypsin, like pepsin break polypeptide to shorter
Bile salts from gall bladder emulsify fat into droplet
Lipase break the molecule of fat droplet
Pancreatic amylase break maltose to glucoses
 Glucose and amino acids pass into blood
capillaries within villus of small intestines
 Fats pass into the lymph ducts (part of the
lymphatic system)
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 • Pancreas: Secretes
and sends insulin &
glucagons to the
small intestine
 Insulin: Enables
glucose forms into
glycogen and
stored in the liver 
 Glucagons:
 Liver: Signals to the liver
 Stores glucose as to convert
glycogen & releases glycogen into
glucose into glucose & release
bloodstream it into the
bloodstream 45
 Large Intestine @
colon:
 Consist of cecum with
appendix,colon,rectum
 Absorbs water, salts,
vitamins and minerals
 The remaining contents
in the lumen form feces
 The feces is mostly
indigestible residue
(cellulose, bacteria) and
liquid
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 Feces will be eliminated
Carbohydrate digestion
in Human

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 Carbohydrate digestion
 In the Mouth:
- chewing begins to break down
food while amylase enzymes in
saliva begin to break down
carbohydrates such as
polysaccharide starch to maltose,
a disaccharide
 This process will be extended in the
duodenum by pancreatic amylase
(in pancreatic juice) secreted by the
pancreas 48
 ..con’t
 In the ileum (small intestine), three
disaccharides are digested to
monosaccharides by enzymes in intestinal
juice
- Maltase digests maltose to glucose.
- Sucrase digests sucrose to glucose and
fructose.
- Lactase digests lactose to glucose and
galactose.
 The monosaccaride products of digestion
absorbed through the wall of the alimentary
canal into the circulatory system (through
blood capillaries of small intestine villus)
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Further readings, try https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-
biology2/chapter/digestive-system-processes/
Birds (avian)
digestive
system
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 The birds digestive system
begins at the mouth and
ends at the cloaca
 The mouth of birds
distinctly different from
mammals. They have no
teeth and their jaws are
covered by a beak

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Three main
regions
Crop
Proventriculus
In the
Gizzard stomach

Crop
= a pouch in the
esophagus to
store food
temporarily
before moving to
the stomach
(feed can remain
up to 12hr)
Proventriculus
= Glandular stomach
(also called true
stomach, with
enzymes) : receives
food from the
esophagus, and
secretes mucus, HCl
and pepsinogen
(similar to the
mammalian
stomach)
Gizzard
Dense pouch
Tough, muscular
lining stomach
facilitate grinding
of foodstuffs (act
as the bird’s inner
teeth)

The large intestine

consists of a short
colon with a pair of
cecum
Ruminant
(Cellulose
digestion)
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 Cellulose digestion in ruminants
 Most mammals have only very limited ability to
digest fiber like cellulose by themselves (because
no cellulase). In herbivorous animals such as
ruminants, cellulases are produced by symbiotic
bacteria
 A ruminant is mammal that digests plant-based
food in process of ruminating:
1. eating the plant material and oftening it within
the animal’s rumen (1st stomach)
2. Then regurgitating the semi-digested plant
material (known as cud)
3. then eating again (rechew) the cud 58
rumination..
 The ruminant digestive system is a slow, but
highly efficient method of processing
vegetations and cellulose digestion
 Ruminant animals (e.g. sheep, cow, goats, deer,
giraffes) have four-chambered stomachs
 The four chamber stomachs are the rumen,
reticulum, omasum, and abomasum
 1. Rumen
Located on the left side of
animal
the largest compartment – to
store large quantities of feed
a suitable environment for the
A cellulolytic bacteria
bacteria and protozoa to live
(because constant pH and
temperature)
Cellulose is broken down here
with the help of rumen microbes
(i.e, cellulolytic bacteria,
protozoa)
The interior surface of the rumen
Absorbs nutrients
 Produced by
microbes

from fed/vegetation
2. Reticulum
has a distinctive
"honeycomb" appearance
It aids to help bring
boluses of feed back up to
the mouth for rechewing
It also traps any foreign
objects that herbivores
eats
Stores foreign objects to
avoid them goes to the
digestive tract
Absorbs nutrients
..explanation..
 In the first two chambers (rumen and reticulum),
the food is mixed with saliva..
 Forming the cud (or bolus).
 The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly
to completely mix it with saliva and to break
down the particle size.
 Fiber, especially cellulose is primarily digest
and broken down by microbes (bacteria,
protozoa, and fungi)
 3. Omasum & 4. Abomasum
Omasum
Right side of
animals
Absorbs water and
minerals
Abomasum
"true" stomach (very
similar to the human
stomach)
secrete enzymes
and hydrochloric Omasum
acid to breakdown
..explanation..
 The broken-down digesta (from rechewed) then
bypasses into the next chamber, the omasum,
where water and mineral elements are absorbed
into the blood stream
 After this the digesta is moved to the last
chamber, the abomasum
 Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine,
where the digestion and absorption of nutrients
occurs
TERIMA
KASIH
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